F  NATUIVL  HISTORY. 


fT'S  OF  ENTOMOLOGY 


;    SPARED  FOR  THE  USE  01 
SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES, 

BY 

W.  R.  W.  lUSCHENBERGEyR,  !,I.D. 

:  •:  •   :      -      •  OF  PHYSIC.- 

,- 

. 

M   THE   TEXT    OF 


MILNE  EDWARDS  AND  .  GRILLE  COMTE, 

IN  TTTL  COL 

' 


WIT1.    PLATES 


PHILADELPHIA: 

GRIGG  &  ELLIOT, 

NO.   9   NORTH    FOURTH   ST.r 

15. 

.  . 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


R  USCHENBERGER'S    SERIES. 


FIRST  BOOKS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY, 


ELEMENTS  OF  ENTOMOLOGY: 

PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 

SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES, 

BY 

W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D. 

SURGEON  IN  THE  U.  S.  NAVY  ;    FELLOW  OF  THE  COLLEGE   OF   PHYSICIANS  ;    HON. 

MEMBER    OF   THE   PHILADELPHIA    MEDICAL    SOCIETY  ;     MEMBER    OF    THE 

ACADEMY  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCES  OF  PHILADELPHIA,  ETC.,  ETC. 

FROM   THE   TEXT    OF 

MILNE  EDWARDS  AND  ACHILLE  COMTE, 

PROFESSORS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  IN  THE  COLLEGES 
OF  HENRI  IV.,  AND  CHARLEMAGNE. 


WITH    PLATES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
GRIGG  &  ELLIOT, 

NO.   9   NORTH    FOURTH    STREET. 

1845. 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1845,  by 
W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D., 

in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


!T.  K.  &  P.  G.  Collins,  Printers. 

(4) 


v_Jr 


PREFACE. 


THE  sixth  in  the  series  of  "  FIRST  BOOKS  of  NA- 
TURAL HISTORY,"  includes  a  consideration  of  Articu- 
lated Animals,  Insects,  My'riapods,  Arach'nidans, 
Crusta'ceans,  Cirr'hopods,  Anne'lidans,  and  Zo'o- 
phytes,  or  radiated  animals. 

The  volume  is  illustrated  by  ninety-one  beautiful 
wood-cuts,  executed  in  his  best  style,  by  Mr.  G. 
Thomas,  of  Philadelphia. 

The  etymology  of  technical  words  is  explained 
in  the  text ;  and  a  full  Glossary  is  also  appended. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  besides  the 
text  of  Edwards  and  Comte,  the  works  of  Cuvier, 
Lamarck,  T.  Rymer  Jones,  Thomas  Say,  and  others, 
have  been  freely  used. 

The  writer  takes  great  pleasure  in  believing  that 
in  supplying  a  series  of  elementary  books  on  natural 
history,  his  humble  labours  may  be  beneficial  to  the 
country.  As  a  useful  branch  of  education,  natural 
history  seems  not  to  be  sufficiently  appreciated,  or 
extensively  regarded. 

By  the  term  Natural  History,  we  mean  that 
science  which  embraces  a  knowledge  of  the  structure 


vi  PREFACE. 

of  all  bodies,  whether  living  or  inorganic,  found  on 
the  whole  face  of  the  earth,  or  united  together  to 
constitute  its  mass ;  a  knowledge  of  the  phenomena 
observable  in  these  bodies,  the  characteristics  by 
which  they  may  be  distinguished  from  each  other, 
and  the  parts  they  perform  in  the  great  total  of  the 
creation.  Its  domain  is  immense,  and  its  importance 
does  not  yield  to  its  extent.  Some  men,  possessing 
little  acquaintance  with  science,  perceive  in  it  a 
mere  collection  of  anecdotes,  more  fitted  to  gratify 
idle  curiosity  than  to  exercise  the  mind;  or  they 
regard  it  as  a  dry  study  of  technical  names  and 
arbitrary  classifications ;  but  such  an  opinion  has  its 
source  in  ignorance,  for  no  one  possessing  the  most 
elementary  notions  of  natural  history  can  fail  to 
recognise  its  great  utility.  The  spectacle  of  nature, 
grand  and  harmonious  as  it  is,  showing  how  vastly 
superior  in  beauty  the  reality  of  the  creation  is  to 
the  most  magnificent  of  human  inventions,  elevates 
and  disposes  the  mind  to  high  and  salutary  thoughts. 
A  knowledge  of  ourselves,  and  of  the  objects  which 
surround  us,  is  not  merely  to  satisfy  our  craving  for 
information — a  craving  which  is  developed  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  of  intelligence :  it  is  a  neces- 
sary foundation  for  many  other  studies,  and  is  emi- 
nently calculated  to  impart  that  rectitude  of  judg- 
ment without  which  the  most  brilliant  qualities  lose 
their  value,  and,  in  the  course  of  life,  rather  lead 


PREFACE.  Vli 

from  than  conduct  us  to  useful  conclusions.  The 
importance  of  the  natural  sciences  ought  to  be  too 
evident  to  require  demonstration.  Geology  and 
mineralogy  render  daily  services  to  industry,  by 
enabling  us  better  to  explore  the  wealth  buried  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth ;  Botany  makes  us  acquainted 
with  the  plants,  so  varied  and  so  beautiful,  which 
supply  our  wants  in  magnificent  prodigality ;  Zoo- 
logy gives  a  knowledge  of  those  animals  which  pro- 
duce wool,  silk,  and  honey,  and  those  that  assist  us 
in  our  toils  with  their  strength,  as  well  as  of  those 
which,  instead  of  being  useful  to  us,  destroy  our 
crops.  How  important  a  guide  natural  m'story  may 
be  made  to  agriculture,  the  great  pursuit  in  the 
United  States  !  Besides,  let  us  remember  the  long 
list  of  diseases  by  which  the  human  machine  is 
afflicted,  and  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  practice 
of  medicine  is  blind  in  action  when  it  does  not  rest 
on  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  man. 

The  practical  importance  of  the  study  of  natural 
history,  we  repeat,  requires  no  proof,  and  must  be 
felt,  no  matter  what  may  be  our  career.  But  its 
influence  does  not  stop  here  ;  the  influence  it  can  be 
made  to  exert  over  our  faculties  themselves,  is 
worthy  of  the  most  serious  attention.  In  fact,  the 
natural  sciences,  by  reason  of  the  routine  system 
peculiar  to  them,  accustom  the  mind  to  go  back  from 
effects  to  causes,  and  at  the  same  time  invariably 


PREFACE. 

submit  results  deduced  from  preceding  observations 
to  the  test  of  new  facts ;  their  study  leads  to  specu- 
lations of  the  most  elevated  character,  but  never 
leads  the  imagination  astray,  because  it  always 
places  material  proof  alongside  of  theory.  And 
beyond  any  other  pursuit,  natural  history  exercises 
the  mind  in  habits  of  method,  a  part  of  logic  with- 
out which  every  investigation  is  laborious,  and 
every  exposition  obscure. 

Natural  History  ought  to  constitute  one  of  the 
elements  of  every  system  of  liberal  education ;  but 
it  is  not  necessary  that  every  young  man  should  be 
a  naturalist.  To  become  a  proficient  in  a  science 
so  vast  in  its  scope,  wrould  require  more  time  than 
can  be  spared  from  other  classical  studies,  and  it 
comprises  a  host  of  details  useful  only  to  those  who 
are  desirous  of  devoting  themselves  especially-  to  it. 
What  every  well-educated  young  man  ought  to 
know  is,  not  the  characteristics  which  distinguish 
this  or  that  genus  of  plants  or  animals  from  another 
genus,  nor  the  exact  course  of  every  nerve,  or  every 
artery  in  the  human  body :  to  charge  his  memory 
with  such  details,  would  subject  him  to  labour  which 
would  be  neither  useful  nor  durable  in  its  results ; 
but  what  he  ought  to  possess,  are  sound  views  on 
all  the  great  questions  that  it  is  the  province  of  the 
natural  sciences  to  solve;  those  on  the  constitution 
of  the  earth,  and  the  physical  revolutions  that  have 


PREFACE.  IX 

taken  place  on  its  surface ;  on  the  manner  in  which 
the  functions  of  all  creatures  are  performed,  and  the 
principal  modifications  observed  in  their  structure, 
according  to  the  kind  of  life  for  which  they  have 
been  destined.  Such  information  once  acquired, 
would  not  be  soon  forgotten ;  and  such  information 
must  be  specially  sought  by  all  who  would  become 
naturalists ;  it  is  enough,  however,  for  those  whose 
occupations  are  not  closely  connected  with  these 
sciences. 

Such  are  the  opinions  of  M.  Edwards,  the  emi- 
nent French  naturalist.  I  am  sure  the  propagation 
of  these  opinions  in  our  country  will  advance  its 
interests.  To  the  science  of  agriculture,  natural 
history,  properly  taught,  is  of  great  importance, 
because  it  teaches  us  the  structure  of  animals,  the 
mode  of  their  existence,  and  what  is  essential  to 
their  life.  This  knowledge  enables  us  to  treat  their 
diseases  with  a  better  prospect  of  success,  and  to 
destroy  those  animals  which  are  injurious  to  our 
interests.  Of  the  value  of  geology  in  teaching  us 
the  nature  of  the  earth's  surface,  there  is  not  less 
doubt. 

It  ought  not  to  be  urged  against  the  study  of 
natural  history,  that  it  requires  us  to  become  familiar 
with  hard  words.  Every  branch  of  human  know- 
ledge— every  mechanic  art,  has  its  respective  tech- 
nicalities. Systematic  names  are  only  difficult  to 


X  PREFACE. 

those  who  are  unacquainted  with  their  meaning.  It 
has  been  observed  by  an  eminent  botanist  of  our 
country,  Dr.  Darlington,  that  ladies  find  no  very 
great  labour  in  acquiring  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
technical  language  of  fashion,  of  mantua-making 
and  millinery.  Mousseline  de  laine,  gros  de  Naples, 
gimp,  gingham,  gros  des  Indes,  millenet,  inserting, 
letting,  &c.  are  examples  of  words  which  are  hard 
to  those  who  do  not  comprehend  their  meaning,  but 
easy  enough  to  those  who  understand  their  applica- 
tion. Morus  multicaulis  is  a  systematic  name, 
which  was  for  a  time  well  understood  by  almost 
everybody  in  the  United  States. 

And  the  same  is  true  of  the  systematic  names 
used  in  Natural  History.  Where  there  is  a  dispo- 
sition to  learn  them,  they  are  readily  acquired  at 
the  cost  of  a  little  labour. 

February,  1845. 


CONTENTS 


OP 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


LESSON  I. 

General  Considerations.  —  Structure  of  Articulated  Animals  —  Division  of 

the  Third  Branch  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 
Class  of  Insects. — Organization — Metamorphosis — Classification. 

LESSON  II. 

Ap'tera. — Order  of  Thysanou'ra. 

Order  of  Parasi'ta. — Louse — Ticks. 

Order  of  Sucto'ria. — Flea — Chigre. 

Order  of  Coleop'tera. — Characters — Division — Pentame'rans — Cicin'dela- 
Carabus — Gyrinus   or   Water-beetle — Fire-flies — Glow-worm — Borers — 
Dermes'tes — May-bugs — Scarabeus — Heterome'rans  —  Blistering-flies — 
Teterame'rans — Weevils — Trime'rans — Lady-bug. 

Order  of  Orthop'tera. — Characters — Earwigs — Mole-crickets  —  Crickets- 
Grasshoppers — Migratory  Locusts. 

LESSON  III. 

Order  of  Hemip'tera. — Organization — Division — Bed-bug — Locust — Plant- 
lice — Cochineal  Insect. 

Order  of  Neurop'tera. — Dragon-flies — Ephe'mera— White  Ants. 

Order  of  Lepidop'tera. — Division — Butterflies  —  Sphinx  —  Botnbyx — Silk- 
worm— Tineae. 

LESSON  IV. 

Order  of  Hymenop'tera. — Organization — Ichneumon-fly — Galls — Wasps — 

Hornets — Ants — Bees. 
Order  of  Rhipip'tera. 

Order  of  Dip'tera. — Mosquitoes — Flies — (Estrus. 
Class  of  Myria'poda.— Scolopendra. 

(7) 


CONTENTS  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


LESSON  V. 

Class  of  Arach'nidans. — Organization — Habits — Classification. 
Arach'nida  Pulmonaria. — Aranei'doe  or  Spinners — Mygale — Mason  Spider 

— Ara'nese  Sedenta'riae — Ara'nese-Vagabun'dae — Taren'tula — Scorpions. 
Ajach'nida  Trachea'ria. — Mowers — Aca'rides — Mites  —  Itch-Arach'nidan 

—Ticks. 

LESSON  VI. 

Class  of  Crusta'cea. — Organization — Moulting — Circulation  —  Respiration 
— Division. 

LESSON  VII. 

Crusta'ceans.-— Order  of  Decapoda— its  Division. 

Bra'chyu'ra. — Crabs — Land-crabs — Habits. 

Anomou'ra. — Soldier  or  Hermit-crabs. 

Macrou'ra. — Craw-fishes — Lobsters — Locust® — Prawns. 

Orders  of  Am'phipoda  and  Iso'poda. — Sea-louse — Wood-louse — King-crab 

— En'tomo'stracans — Trilobites. 
Class  of  Cirr'hopoda. — Ana'tifa — Balanus. 

LESSON  VIII. 

('lass  of  Anne'lida. — Organization — Division— Earth-worms. 
Family  of  Suctoria. — Leech. 
Order  of  Dorsibranchiata. — Eunice. 
Order  of  Tubicola.— Sabella. 

LESSON  IX. 

Zo'ophytes. — Organization — Division. 
Class  of  Infusoria  Rotatoria. 

Class  of  Entozo'a. — Division — Filia'ria — Ascarides — Teenia. 
Class  of  Infuso'ria  Polygas'trica. 
Class  of  E'chinoder'mata. — Sea-stars. 
Class  of  Acale'pha. — Medusa. 

Class  of  Polypi. — Cor al— Coral-reefs — Hydros— Sponges— Geographical  1  >is- 
tribution  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 


ELEMENTS  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


THIRD  BRANCH  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM, 


ARTICULATED   ANIMALS. 


LESSON  I. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. — Structure  of  Articulated  Animals 
— Division  of  the  Third  Branch  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

CLASS  OF  INSECTS. — Organization  —  Metamorphosis — Classi- 
fication. 

1.  The  third  great  division,  or  Third  Branch  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom,  includes  all  animals  that  are  constructed  on  the  same' 
general  plan  as  insects.     Their  internal  structure  is  essentially 
different  from  that  of  animals  belonging  to  any  of  the  other  three 
branches  of  the  animal  kingdom  ;  and  their  external  characters 
are  so  decided  and  evident  that  it  is    almost   always  easy  to 
recognise  them  at  first  sight. 

2.  They  are  termed  articulated  animals — animalia  articulata 
— because  their  body  is  divided  into  sections,  and  seems  to  be 
composed  of  rings,  placed  in  a  contiguous  series  on  a  line  with 
each  other  (Jig.  1).     The  extremities  in  many  instances  are  also 
formed  in  this  manner.     These  rings  are  formed  of  portions  of 


Fig.  1. SCOLOPEXDRA. 


1.  What  description   of  animals  are  comprised  in  the  third  branch  of  the 
animal  kingdom  ? 

2.  Why   are   they  termed   articulated  animals  ?      How   are   the   rings 
formed?     Have  articulated  animals  any  skeleton  ? 

1  **  (9) 


10  STRUCTURE  OF  ARTICULATA. 

skin  which  are  harder  and  thicker  than  the  rest  of  the  body. 
In  some  cases  this  annular  arrangement  arises  so'ely  from  the 
existence  of  a  certain  number  of  transverse  folds  or  plaits  which 
groove  the  skin  and  encircle  the  body ;  but  in  most  instances  the 
animal  is  enclosed  in  a  species  of  solid  armour,  composed  of  a 
series  of  rings  united  to  each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit 
of  motion.  The  uses  of  this  armour  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
internal  frame  or  skeleton  of  vertebrate  animals ;  because  it  de- 
termines the  general  form  of  the  body,  protects  the  soft  parts, 
affords  points  of  attachment  for  muscles,  and  furnishes  them 
levers,  fitted  to  secure  precision  and  rapidity  of  motion.  It  is 
frequently  termed  an  external  skeleton,  although  it  does  not 
represent  our  skeleton.  In  reality  it  is  only  the  skin  which 
has  become  hard  and  stiff.  Its  rings  are  of  a  horny  consist- 
ence ;  and  in  some  instances,  they  become  almost,  if  not 
entirely,  stony,  forming  a  case  in  which  the  soft  parts  of  the 
animal  are  enclosed. 

3.  In    general,  the  rings  of  which  this   external    skeleton  is 
formed    are  movable  upon  each  other,  but  in  certain  parts  of 
the  body,  we  sometimes  see  them   soldered  together,  and  then 
they  are  less  easily  distinguishable  :  this  is  always  the  case  in 
the  thorax  of  insects,  but  in  other  articulate  animals,  the  cen- 
tipedes or  scolopendraB,  for  example,  the  rings  are  movable  and 
like  each  other  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  body. 

4.  Some  articulated  animals  have  no  extremities,  an  example 
of  which  we  have  in  the  common  leech ;  but  most  of  these  ani- 
mals are  provided  with  them ;  the  number  of  these  extremities  is 
very  considerable;   there  are  never  less  than   three   pairs,  and 
sometimes  we  find  several  hundred,  as  in  some  marine  anneli- 
dans. 

5.  The  nervous  system  of  articulated  animals  is  always  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  small  ganglia   attached   together  in   pairs, 
placed  upon  the  middle  line  of  the  inferior  face  of  the  body,  and 
united  by  longitudinal  cords  of  communication,  so  as  to  form  a 
sort  of  chain,  or,  rather,  to  represent  a  double-knotted  cord,  ex- 
tending from  one  end  of  the  body  to  the  other.     The  nervous 
mass  formed  by  the  first  ganglion  (fg.  2,  a),  which  is  sometimes 
called  the  brain,  is  enclosed  in  the  head,  and  is  placed  above  and 
in  front  of  the  cesophagus  ;  the  other  ganglia,  on  the  contrary, 
are  situate  behind  the  oesophagus  and  beneath  the  digestive  canal, 
so  that  the  cords  which  unite  the  ganglia  of  the  head  to  those  of 
the   thorax,  pass  from  each   side  of  the  oesophagus  and   form 

3    Are  all  the  rings  of  articulated  animals  movable  ? 
4.  What  is  the  number  of  extremities  possessed  by  articulated  animals  ? 
5    What  is  the  character  of  the  nervous  system  in  articulated  animals  ? 
Have  these  animals  a  brain,  properly  so  called  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  ARTICULATA. 


11 


around  this  canal  a  sort  of  collar  (d). 
The  different  nerves  of  the  body  arise 
from  these  ganglia  and  ramify  in  the 
neighbouring  parts. 

6.  The  organs  of  the  senses  are  less 
numerous   than  in  vertebrate   animals, 
and    sometimes    they    are     altogether 
wanting."    In  general  they  have  eyes, 
and  sometimes  an  apparatus  of  hearing, 
but  no  articulated  animal  has  yet  been 
discovered  possessing  a  distinct  organ 
of   smell.     It   must    not    be    inferred, 
however,  from  this  fact,  that  they  are  all 
incapable  of  appreciating  odours. 

7.  The   digestive   tube   or   canal  of 
these  animals  is  always  extended  from 
one  end  of  the  body  to  the  other  (figs. 
12  and  74),  and  the  mouth  is  generally 
furnished  with  jaws  ;  but  these  organs 
do  not  move  up  and  down  as  in  verte- 
brate animals  ;  they  are  always  lateral, 
and  move  from  without  inwards. 

8.  In  general  their  blood  is  white,  but 
not  always  ;  in  the  class  of  anne'lida  it 
is  red  ;    and  its  manner  of  circulating 

is  various.  In  these  animals  the  mode  of  respiration  is  equally 
various.  They  are  all  ovi'parous,  that  is,  their  young  are  pro- 
duced from  eggs. 

9.  Articulated  animals,  possessing,  as  they  do,  a  nervous  sys- 
tem more  developed  than  that  of  the  rnollusks,  limbs  for  locomo- 
tion, and  a  sort  of  tegumentary  skeleton,  must  necessarily  be 
superior  to  them  in  every  thing  which  essentially  characterized 
ammatity,  that  is,  in  the  functions  of  relation  ;  but,  as  respects  the 
functions  of  vegetative  life,  they  are  not  so  well  provided ;  their 

Explanation  of  Fig.  2. — The  nervous  system  of  an  insect : — cr,  the  brain 
or  cephalic  ganglion  : — 6,  the  optic  nerves ; — c,  nerves  of  the  head  ; — d, 
nervous  cords  which  unite  the  brain  to  the  thoracic  ganglia,  and  form  a 
collar  around  the  oesophagus  ; — e,  e,  e,  e,  thoracic  and  abdominal  ganglia ; — 
/,  nervous  cords  which  unite  the  nerves  with  each  other ;  — jf,  g,  nerves  of 
different  parts  of  the  body. 

6.  Are  the  senses  perfect  and  complete  ?    Have  articulated  animals  the 
tense 'of  smell  ? 

7.  What  is   the   character   of  the   digestive   apparatus    in    articulated 
animals  ? 

8.  What  is  the  colour  of  their  blood  ?     How  do  they  breathe  ?     How  are 
they  propagated  ? 

9.  In  what  respects  are  articulated  animals  superior  to  rnollusks  ? 


Fig.  2.— NERVES  OF  AM 
INSECT. 


12 


DIVISIONS  OF  ARTICULATA. 


circulatory  apparatus  is  less  complete,  and  in  some  cases  is  alto- 
gether absent. 

10.  In  a  word,  we  see  that  articulated  animals  are  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  three  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom 
by  the  arrangement  of  the  nervous  system  and  by  the  body  being 
surrounded  by  a  series  of  rings  which  seem  to  divide  it  into  so 
many  transverse  segments. 

11.  This  great  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  is  composed  of 
six  distinct  classes  of  animals  ;    namely,  insects,  my'riapods, 
arach'nidans,  crusta'ceans,  cirr'hopods,  and  anne'lidans.     The 
following  table  exhibits  some  of  the  characters  by  which  they 
are  distinguished  from* each  other. 


A  distinct  head,' 
thorax  and  abdomen ; 
three  pairs  of  legs,  and 
generally  provided  with 
wings.  Tracheae :  but 
no  circulatory  appara- 


CLASSES. 


INSE'CTA. 


'     lungs,   or 

ius  piupen^  su  uauuu.    j 

tracheae   for 
breathing  air. 
Extremities 
articulated. 

Head,    thorax,     and' 
abdomen,  not  separated 
from  each  other.    Legs, 
twenty-four    or     more 

•  MYRI'APODA. 

• 

pairs.       Tracheae  :    no 

circulatory      apparatus: 

without  wings.               j 

Head        confounded  "} 

. 

'Blood   white; 
provided  with 

with   the    thorax.     Al- 
ways   without    wings. 
Four     pairs     of    legs. 
Tracheae,  or  pulmonary 

-  ARACH'NIDA 

5jjj 

sacs.     Vascular  system 

*% 

tolerably  well  develop- 

£ 

Led. 

P 

'     In    general,   five   or') 

*& 

branchiae    for 
breathing  wa-< 

seven   pairs  of  articu-  1  n 
lated  legs.     A  circula-  f  CRU8TA  CEA" 
tory  apparatus.                J 

1 

< 

Lter. 

No  legs   for  locomo-  i 
tion.     Always  live   at-  >  CIRR'HOPODA. 
Cached  to  other  bodies.   5 

Red  or  coloured  blood.     Unprovided  with  articulated  >  A  „„./,., 

n       i         .          .              i  .                                             /  ANNE  LJDA, 

^extremities.     Generally  having  branchiae.                          $ 

10.  How  are  articulated   animals   distinguished    from   the   other  three 
Branches  of  the  animal  kingdom  ? 

11.  Into  what  classes  is  the  Branch  of  articulated  animals  divided  ? 


CLASS  OF  INSECTS.  13 

12.  By  an  examination  of  the  preceding  table  we  learn : — that 
animals  of  the  class  INSECTA  have  articulated  extremities,  tracheae' 
for  breathing  air,  white  blood,  but  no  circulatory  apparatus  pro- 
perly so  called.     They  generally  have  wings  and  three  pairs  of 
legs.     The  head  is  distinct  from  the  thorax  : — 

13.  That  animals  of  the  class  MYRI'APODA  have  twenty-four 
or  a  greater  number  of  pairs  of  articulated  extremities  ;  no  wings ; 
white  blood,  but  no  circulatory  apparatus;  and  that  they  breathe 
by  tracheae.     The  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  are  confounded  in 
an  elongated  body  : — 

14.  That  animals  of  the  class  ARACH'NIDA  have  white  blood, 
and  generally  a  tolerably  well  developed  vascular  apparatus ;  tra- 
cheae, or  pulmonary  sacs  for  breathing  air ;  they  have  four  pairs 
of  articulated  extremities,  but  are  always  destitute  of  wings.     The 
head  is  confounded  with  the  thorax  : — 

15.  That  animals  of  the  class  CRUSTA'CEA  have  white  blood ; 
a  circulatory  apparatus ;  articulated  extremities ;  five  or  seven 
pairs  of  legs,  and  branchiae  for  breathing  water  ; — 

16.  That  animals  of  the  class  CIRR'HOPODA  have  white  blood, 
but  no  extremities  for  locomotion ;  and  they  always  live  attached 
to  other  bodies.     They  breathe  water  by  means  of  branchiae : — 
and,  last, 

17.  That  animals  of  the  class  ANNE'LIDA  have  coloured  blood  ; 
are  unprovided  with  articulated  extremities;  and,  in  general,  have 
branchiae  for  breathing  water. 

CLASS  OF  INSECTS. 

18.  The  class  of  insects  includes  all  articulated  animals  that 
are  unprovided  with  a  circulatory  apparatus  properly  so  called, 
that  breathe  by  tracheae,  undergo,  in   general,  a  metamorphosis 
while  young,  and  possess  six  articulated  extremities ;  they  gene- 
rally have  wings,  and  the  head,  which  is  furnished  with  antennae, 
is  always  distinct  from  the  thorax. 

12.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characters  of  insects. 

13.  How  are  myri'apods  characterized?      How  are   they  distinguished 
from  insects. 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  arach'nidans  ?     What  distinguishes  them 
from  insects? 

15.  How  are  crusta'eeans   distinguished?     How   do   they   differ    from 
cirr'hopods  ? 

16.  What  are  the  characters  of  cirr'hopods?     What  distinguishes  them 
from  insects  ? 

17.  What  are  the  characters  of  anne'lidans  ?    How  are  they  distinguished 
from  myri'apods  ? 

18.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  animals  composing  the  class  of 
insects  ? 

2 


14 


STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


-n 


19.  The  skin  of  insects  is  in  general  very  hard,  and  almost 
horny ;  it  forms  a  kind  of  solid  case,  in  the  interior  of  which  are 
placed  the  muscles,  viscera, 

&c. ;  it  fulfils  the  functions 
of  an  external  skeleton,  and 
is  divided  by  a  series  of 
rings  more  or  less  con- 
siderable in  number. 

20.  The  body  is  divided 
into  three  perfectly  distinct 
parts ;  namely,  head,  thorax, 
and  abdomen. 

21.  The  head  (a,  Jig.  3) 
is      not      subdivided      into 
rings :      it      sustains      the 
mouth,  and  two  little  stems 
or  articulated  horns,  called 
antenna,     or     feelers     (c). 
These     little     organs     are 
probably   the    seat   of   the 
sense      of     touch ;      their 
length  and  form  vary  very 

,  J  J  Fig.  3. — ANATOMY   OF   AN    INSECT. 

much  ;  sometimes  they  are 

filiform,  at  others  like  a  saw,  club-shaped,  &c. 

The  surface  of  the  head  is  sometimes  divided  into  regions;  namely,  the 
clypeus  (Latin,  buckler),  that  part  to  which  the  labrum  or  upper  lip  is  at- 
tached  ;  the  face,  the  front,  the  vertex  or  summit,  and  the  cheeks. 

22.  The  thorax  (d,f,  i,Jig.  3),  or  middle  portion  of  the  body, 
is  sometimes   called   the   corselet,  although  this   name,  strictly 
speaking,  belongs  only  to  the  second  ring  of  the  thorax,  which, 
in  all  insects,  is  composed  of  three  rings  or  segments,  each  one 

Explanation  of  Fig.  3.  —  Anatomy  of  the  tegumentary  system  of  a 
winged  insect  (a  grasshopper) : — a,  the  head  ; — b,  the  eyes ; — c,  the  an- 
tennae ;  —  d,  the  prothorax,  or  first  ring  of  the  thorax ;  —  e,  the  first  pair 
of  legs ;— /,  the  mesothorax,  or  second  ring  of  the  thorax,  bearing  the  first 
pair  of  wings  (g),  and  the  second  pair  of  legs  (h) ; — i,  the  metathorax,  or 
third  ring  of  the  thorax,  bearing  the  second  pair  of  wings  (j},  and  the  third 
pair  of  legs  (k) ; — I,  the  abdomen  ; — m,  the  femur  or  thigh ; — n,  the  tibia  or 
leg  ;— o,  the  tarsus  or  foot. 

19.  What  purposes  does  the  skin  of  insects  fulfil? 

20.  How  is  the  body  of  insects  divided  ? 

21.  Is  the  head  divided  into  rings?     What  parts  are  attached  to  the 
head? 

22.  To  what  part  of  the  thorax  does  the  name  corselet  particularly  be. 
long  ?     Of  how  many  pieces  is  the  thorax  composed  ?     To  what  parts  are 
the  legs  and  wings  of  insects  attached  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS.  15 

having  a  pair  of  legs  attached  to  it.  The  first  ring  of  the  thorax 
(d)  never  has  wings  attached  to  it,  and  is  always  visible,  while 
the  succeeding  rings  are  commonly  covered  above  by  these 
organs.  When  there  are  four  wings,  which  is  almost  always  the 
case,  those  of  the  first  pair  are  attached  to  the  second  ring  of  the 
thorax  (f),  and  are  covered  by  the  next  pair,  which  are  inserted 
into  the  sides  of  the  third  thora'cic  ring  (i).  When  there  is  only 
one  pair  of  wings  (as  in  the  common  fly),  they  are  attached  to 
the  second  ring  of  the  thorax  (/). 

The  first  ring  of  the  thorax  (d)  is  called  the  prothorax  (from  the  Greek, 
pro,  before,  and  thorax,  shield,  or  chest);  the  second  ring  (/),  mesothorax 
(from  the  Greek,  mesos,  the  middle,  and  thorax') ;  and  the  third  (t)  the  meta- 
thorax  (from  the  Greek,  meta,  between,  and  thorax"). 

These  three  rings  are  closely  and  solidly  united  into  one  piece,  and 
constitute  the  trunk,  the  inferior  surface  of  which  is  styled  the  peclus  ;  that 
portion  of  it  which  corresponds  to  the  prothorax,  is  called  ante-pectus  (from 
the  Latin,  ante,  before,  and  peclus,  breast) ;  that  portion  which  corresponds 
to  the  mesothorax,  is  called  medio-pectus  (from  the  Latin,  medius,  the 
middle,  and  pectus,  breast) ;  and  the  part  corresponding  to  the  metathorax, 
is  named  post-pcctus  (from  the  Latin,  post,  behind,  and  pectus,  breast).  The 
middle  line  of  the  inferior  surface  of  the  trunk  is  termed  the  sternum,  and 
is  divided  into  three  parts ;  the  ante-sternum,  medio*sternum,  and  post- 
sternum. 

23.  In  all  true  insects,  or,  as  they  are  also  denominated,  hexa- 
pods  (from  the  Greek,  exa,  six,  and  pous,  foot — having  six  feet), 
the  abdomen  is  very  distinct  from  the  thorax,  and  has  no  ex- 
tremities, neither  feet  nor  wings,  attached  to  it :  it  is  composed  of 
a  certain  number  of  rings,  and  we  often  find  at   its  termination, 
near  the  anus,  various  appendages,  such  as  stings  or  borers.    The 
last  rings  or  an'nuli  of  the  abdomen,  in  several  females,  form  a 
retractile  or  always  projecting  ovipositor,  of  a  more  or  less  com- 
plicated structure,  which  acts  as  an  auger. 

24.  The  legs  of  insects,  which  are  solid  tubes  containing  the 
muscles  by  which  they  are  moved,  are  always  six   in  number ; 
there  are  never  fewer  than  six,  and  if  in  some  instances  we  see 
but  four  at  first  (as  in  certain  butterflies,  Papilio),  we  shall  find 
on  close  examination  that  two  of  these  organs  are  not  developed, 
but  are  concealed  under  the  hair. 

25.  Sometimes  the  legs  are  formod  solely  for  walking ;  some- 
times they  are  elongatecLand  fitted  for  leaping,  or  they  are  spread 
out  so  as  to  constitute  fins  for  swimming ;  and,  again,  they  are 
modified  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  oi^ans  of  prehension. 

23.  What  extremities  are  attached  to  the  abdomen  ? 

24.  What  is  the  invariable  number  of  legs  in  insects  ?     Where  are  the 
muscles  placed  which  move  the  legs  ? 

25.  Are  the  legs  of  all  insects  alike  ?    What  are  the  uses  to  which  tney 
are  applied  ? 


16  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 

26.  The  leg  is  divided  into  four  parts;  the  coxa,  the  femur  or 
thigh,  the  tibia  or  leg,  and  tarsus  or  foot.  The  coxa  (hip  or 
haunch),  which  may  be  said  to  be  set  into  the  thorax,  is  formed 
of  two  pieces,  and  varies  much  in  form.  The  femur  (thigh,  mt 
Jig.  3)  constitutes  the  second  articulation  of  the  leg ;  it  is  always 
tolerably  long,  and  is  sometimes  remarkable  for  its  development. 
The  tibia  (leg,^^.  3,  n)  is  next  to  the  femur,  which  it  ordinarily 
equals  in  length  ;  the  whole  extremity  is  terminated  by  the  tarsus 
(o),  which  is  almost  always  formed  of  from  two  to  five  articula- 
tions, and  frequently  bears  at  the  end,  one  or  more  hooks  or 
nails. 

"In  the  generality  of  terrestrial  insects,  the  last  segment  of  the  tarsus  or 
foot  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  strong  horny  hooks,  which  are  available  for 
many  purposes,  being  used  either  for  creeping  upon  a  moderately  rough 
surface,  for  climbing  or  clinging  to  various  substances. 

"  Such  simple  hooks,  however,  would  not  always  serve.  In  the  case  of 
the  louse  (pediculus\  for  example,  that  is  destined  to  climb  slender  and 
polished  hairs,  such  prehensile  organs  would  be  of  little  use.  The  structure 
of  the  foot  is  therefore  modified ;  the  tarsus  in  this  insect  terminates  in  a 
single  movable  claw,  which  bends  back  upon  a  tooth-like  process  derived 
from  the  tibia,  and  thus  forms  a  pair  of  forceps  fitted  to  grasp  the  stem  of 
the  hair  and  secure  a  firm  hold. 

"  Many  insects,  especially  those  of  the  dipterous  order,  are  able  to  ascend 
the  smoothest  perpendicular  planes,  or  even  to  run  with  facility,  suspended 
by  their  feet,  in  an  inverted  position,  along  substances  which,  from  their 
polished  surfaces,  could  afibrd  no  hold  to  any  apparatus  of  forceps  or  hook- 
lets.  In  the  common  flies  (Muscidce}  the  exercise  of  this  faculty  is  of  such 
every-day  occurrence,  that,  wonderful  as  it  is,  it  scarcely  attracts  the  atten- 
tion of  ordinary  observers.  The  foot  of  the  house-fly,  nevertheless,  is  a  very 
curious  piece  of  mechanism  ;  for  in  addition  to  the  recurved  hooks  possess- 
ed by  other  climbing  species,  it  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  minute  membra- 
nous flaps,  which,  under  a  good  microscope,  are  seen  to  be  covered  with 
innumerable  hairs  of  the  utmost  delicacy  :  these  flaps,  or  suckers,  as  they 
might  be  termed,  adhere  to  any  plane  surface  with  sufficient  tenacity  to 
support  the  whole  weight  of  the  fly,  and  thus  confer  upon  it  a  power  of 
progression  denied  to  insects  of  ordinary  construction. 

"  Another  mode  of  progression  common  among  insects  is  by  leaping,  to 
which  from  their  extraordinary  muscular  power  they  are  admirably  adapted. 
The  common  flea,  for«example,  will  leap  two  hundred  times  its  own  length. 

"  The  muscular  system  of  insects  has  always  excited  the  wonder  and 
astonishment  of  the  naturalist,  in  whatever  point  of  view  he  examines  this 
part  of  their  economy,  whether  he  considers  the  perfection  of  their  move- 
ments, the  inconceivable  minuteness  of  the  parts  moved,  or  the  strength, 
persistence,  or  velocity  of  their  contractions.  Insects  are  proverbially  of 
small  comparative  dimensions — 4  minims  of  nature' — 

that  wave  their  limber  fans 

For  wings,  and  smallest  lineaments  exact, 
In  all  the  liveries  deck'd  of  summer's  pride ;' 

their  presence,  indeed,  around  us,  is  only  remarked  as  conferring  additional 
life  and  gayety  to  the  landscape ;  and  except  when,  by  some  inordinate 

26.  How  is  the  leg  divided  ?  What  is  the  coxa  ?  What  is  the  femur  ? 
What  is  the  tibia  ?  What  is  the  tarsus  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  WINGS  OF  INSECTS.  17 

increase  of  their  numbers,  they  make  up  by  their  multitude  for  their  di- 
minutive size,  the  ravages  committed  by  them  are  trifling-  and  insignificant. 
Far  otherwise,  however,  would  it  be,  if  they  attained  to  larger  growth,  and 
still  possessed  the  extraordinary  power  with  which  they  are  now  so  con- 
spicuously  gifted;  they  would  then,  indeed,  become  truly  the  tyrants  of  crea- 
tion,— monsters  such  *  as  fables  never  feigned,  nor  fear  conceived,' — fully 
adequate  to  destroy  and  exterminate  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  all  that  it 
contains  of  vegetable  or  of  animal  life. 

"  The  flea  or  grasshopper  will  spring  two  hundred  times  its  own  length ; 
the  dragon-fly  possesses  such  indomitable  strength  of  wing,  that  for  a  day 
together  it  will  sustain  itself  in  the  air,  and  fly  with  equal  facility  and 
swiftness  backwards  or  forwards,  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  without  turning; 
the  beetles  are  encased  in  a  dense  and  hard  integument,  impervious  to  or- 
dinary  violence ;  and  we  might  add,  that  the  wasp  and  the  termite  ant  will 
penetrate  with  their  jaws  the  hardest  wood.  Neither  is  the  velocity  of  the 
movements  of  insects  inferior  to  their  prodigious  muscular  power.  'An 
anonymous  writer  in  Nicholson's  Journal,'  say  Kirby  and  Spence,  '  calcu- 
lates that  in  its  ordinary  flight  the  common  house-fly  (Masca  domestica) 
makes  with  its  wings  about  six  hundred  strokes,  which  carry  it  five  feet, 
every  second  ;  but  if  alarmed,  lie  states  their  velocity  can  be  increased  six 
or  seven  fold,  or  to  thirty  or  thirty-five  feet  in  the  same  period.  In  this 
space  of  time  a  race-horse  could  clear  only  ninety  feet,  which  is  at  the  rate 
of  more  than  a  mile  in  a  minute.  Our  little  fly,  in  her  swiftest  flight,  will 
in  the  same  space  of  time  go  more  than  the  third  of  a  mile.  Now,  compare 
the  infinite  difference  of  the  size  of  the  two  animals  (ten  millions  of  the 
fly  would  hardly  counterpoise  one  racer),  and  how  wonderful  will  the 
velocity  of  this  minute  creature  appear  !  Did  the  fly  equal  the  race-horse 
in  size,  and  retain  its  present  powers  in  the  ratio  of  its  magnitude,  it  would 
traverse  the  globe  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning.'  " — T.  Rymer  Jones. 

27.  The  wings  are  dry,  membranous,  elastic  appendages,  usu- 
ally diaphanous,  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  back  of  the  thorax. 
They  are  composed  of  two  thin  membranes,  laid  one  on  the  other, 
joined  together  by  horny  lines  called  nervures,  which  are  in  fact 
so  many  tracheal  tubes  for  the  passage  of  a  r. 

28.  The  wings  of  insects  differ  much  in  texture :  in  place  of 
being  membranous  and  transparent,  as  in  flies  and  bees,  they  are 
sometimes  opaque  and  covered  by  a  multitude  of  little  scales  like 
dust,  as  in  butterflies  ;  and  at  other  times  we  observe  them  acquire 
a  thickness  and  consistence  so  great  that  they  resemble  horn, 
and  do  not  differ  from  other  hard  parts  of  the  insect,  as  in  the 
may-bug,  for  example.     It  is  only  the  first  pair  of  wings  that 
present  this  latter  condition  ;  when  thus  modified  they  are  not 
suitable  for  flight,  but  form  a  species  of  shield  for  the  protection 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  and  are  named  elytra.     Sometimes 
the  elytra,  instead  of  being  horny  throughout  their  whole  extent, 
are  membranous  towards  the  end,  as  in  wood-bugs:    they  are 
then  called  demi-elytra. 

27.  What  are  wings  ?     What  are  nervures  ? 

28.  In  what  respects  do  wings  differ  from  each  other  ?     What  are  ely- 
tra  ?    What  are  demi-elytra. 

2* 


18 


EYES.— NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


29.  In   some  di'pterous  insects,  in  place  of  the  second  pair 
of  wings  we  find  two  pedunculated  globular  bodies,  named  hal- 
teres,  or  poisers. 

30.  The  eyes  of  insects  are  always  on  a  level  with  the  head, 
and  are  never  borne  on  a  movable  peduncle,  as  in  certain  crus- 
taceans ;  sometimes  their  structure  is  the  same  as  in  ara'chnidans, 
and  they  are  called  simple  eyes,  or  ocelli ;  but  in  all  insects 
there  exist,  either  conjointly  with  them  or  separately,  compound 
eyes,  or  eyes  with  facets. 

"  The  compound  eyes  of  insects  are  two  in  number,  situated  on  the  lateral 
aspects  of  the  head,  the  form  of  each  being  more  or  less  hemispherical. 
When  examined  with  a  microscope,  their  surface  is  seen  to  be  divided  into 
a  multitude  of  hexagonal  facets,  between  which  minute  hairs  are  generally 
conspicuous.  The  number  of  facets,  or  corneae,  for  such  in  fact  they  are, 
varies  in  different  genera :  thus,  in  the  ant  (For'mica)  there  are  50 ;  in  the 
common  house-fly  (Musca  domestica)  4,000 ;  in  some  dragon-flies  (Libellula) 
upwards  of  12,000.  In  butterflies  (Papilio)  17,355  have  been  counted,  and 
some  Coleopteroe  possess  the  astonishing  number  of  25,088  distinct  cor- 
nese." — T.  Rymer  Jones. 

31.  Of  the  organs  of  smell  and  of 
hearing  in  these  animals  we  know 
nothing.      The   nervous   system  is 
composed    of    a    chain   of    double 
ganglia,    arranged    as    has  already 
been  described  (fig.  2,  page  11). 

32.  The  mouth  is  placed  in  the 
anterior   and    inferior    part   of  the 
head ;    but    its    form    varies    con- 
siderably, accordingly  as   the   ani- 
mal is  destined  to  feed  on  solid  or 
liquid  substances. 

33.  In  the  Tritores,  or  triturating 

insects,  the  mouth  is  composed,  1st,    Fig.  4.— MOUTH  OF  AN  INSECT. 

of  an  upper  lip ;  2d,  of  a  pair  of 

mandibles  ;  3d,  of  a  pair  of  jaws  ;  and  4th,  of  a  lower  lip. 


.  m 


ma- 


Explanation  of  Fig.  4.— Apparatus  of  mastication  of  a  coleo'pterous  in- 
sect  ;_Za,  the  labrum  ;  —  m,  the  mandibles  ;  —  ma,  the  maxillse  or  jaws ; — 
p,  maxillary  palpi ;— Zi,  the  labium,  or  lower  lip;— pi,  the  palpi  of  the  la- 
bium.  

29.  What  are  halteres  ? 

30.  How  are  the  eyes  of  insects  situated  ?    How  many  kinds  of  eyes  have 
insects  ?     What  are  compound  eyes  ? 

31.  Where  are  the  organs  of  smell  and  of  hearing  situated  ?     How  is  the 
nervous  system  of  insects  arranged  ? 

32.  What  is  the  character  of  the  mouth  ?     Where  is  it  situated  ? 

33.  Of  wnat  parts  does  the  mouth,  in  triturating  insects,  consist  ? 


MOUTH  OF  INSECTS.  19 

34.  The  upper  lip  or  labrum  (la,  fig.  4)  is  a  flat  piece  fixed  to 
the  anterior  part  of  the  head,  and  closes  the  mouth  from  above. 

35.  The   mandibles   (m)   are    appendages,   resembling   large 
teeth,  which  are  inserted  into  the  sides  of  the  head  immediately 
below  and  behind  the  labrum;  they  are  movable,  and  transverse, 
that  is,  they  are  placed,  one  to  the  left  and  the  other  to  the  right  ; 
they  are  generally  very  hard  and  of  a  horny  consistence.     They 
serve  to  divide  the  food.     The  mandibles  of  insects  never  have 
palpi  attached  to  them. 

35.  The  maxilla,  or  jaws  (ma),  are  also  two  in  number,  and 
are  placed,  one  on  the  right  and  the  other  on  the  left,  below  and 
behind  the  mandibles.  Each  jaw  has,  on  its  external  side,  a 
little  appendage  formed  of  from  four  to  six  articulations,  named 
maxillary  palpus  (p) ;  sometimes  there  are  two  palpi.  In  or- 
thoptera  the  extremity  of  the  palpus  is  often  terminated  by  two 
lobes  ;  in  this  case  the  external  one  is  called  the  galea. 

37.  The  lower  lip,  or  labium  (li)  closes  the  mouth  from  below, 
and  resembles  a  second  pair  of  jaws,  ordinarily  joined  on  their 
internal  side,  and  in  a  great  degree  covered  by  a  horny  pro- 
longation in  the  middle,  termed  the  mentum,  or  chin  ;  the  ligula 
is  another  part  of  the  labium.     Each  half  of  this  lip  supports  a 
palpus  (pi,  fig.  4)  which  is  smaller  than 

those  of  the  maxillae,  and  consists  of  never 
more  than  four  articulations. 

38.  The  annexed  figure  (5)  is  a  magni- 
fied representation  of  the  head  of  a  cock- 
roach (Blattd),  seen  from  the  front.     A 
careful   examination   of   the   figure   will 
more  fully  explain  the  several  parts  of  the 
mouth  ;  —  a,  the  antennae  ;  —  b,  the  com- 
pound  eyes;  —  c,   the   ocelli   or   simple 
eyes  ;  —  d,  the  labrum  ;  —  e,  the  mandi- 

bles;— /,  the  maxillae  or  jaws;—  g,  the      Figt  S.  —  HEAD  OF  A 

ligula;  —  h,  the  labial  palpi ;  —  i,  maxil-  '    COCKROACH. 

lary  palpi.     The  principal  use  of  the  palpi 

is  to  seize  and  hold  food  between  the  mandibles,  while  it  is  being 

divided. 

Sometimes  the  jaws  are  enormously  developed  and  form  in 
front  of  the  head  a  sort  of  pincers ;  an  arrangement  which  is 

34.  What  is7 the  labrum  ?     Where  is  it  attached  ? 

35.  What  are  mandibles  in  insects  ?     How  are  they  placed  in  respect  to 
the  labrum  ?     What  is  their  number  ?     What  is  their  use  ? 

36.  Where   are   the   maxillae    placed  ?     What   is   a   maxillary  palpus  ? 
What  is  meant  by  the  galea  1 

37.  What  is  the  labium  ?    What  is  the  mentum  ?    What  is  the  ligula  ? 

38.  Of  what  use  are  the  palpi  ? 


20  MOUTH  OF  INSECTS. 

very  remarkable  in  the  stag-beetles  (Lucanus  cervus)  and  other 
species  of  the  genus  lucanus  ;  for  example : 


Fig.  g. STAG    BEETLE. 

"The  largest  of  these  beetles  in  the  New  England  States  is  the  horn-bug. 
Its  colour  is  a  deep  mahogany-brown ;  the  upper  jaws  of  the  male  are  long, 
curved  like  a  sickle,  and  furnished  internally  beyond  the  middle  with  a 
little  tooth ;  those  of  the  female  are  much  shorter,  and  also  toothed ;  the 
head  of  the  male  is  broad  and  smooth,  that  of  the  other  sex  narrower  and 
rough  with  punctures.  The  body  of  this  beetle  measures  from  one  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a  quarter,  exclusive  of  the  jaws.  The  time  of  its  appearance 
in  July  and  the  beginning  of  August.  The  grubs  (larvse)  live  in  the  trunks 
and  roots  of  various  kinds  of  trees.  Several  other  and  smaller  kinds  of 
stag-beetles  are  found  in  New  England." — Harris. 

39.  In  insects  that  live  by  suction,  the  jaws  or  labrum  are 
elongated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  constitute  a  tubular  trunk,  in 
which  we  often  find  delicate  filaments  that  perform  the  functions 
of  little  lancets  ;  they  are  formed  by  the  mandibles  and  jaws,  so 
modified  as  to  be  scarcely  remarkable. 

40.  In  bees,  the  anthophorse  (from  the  Greek,  anilws,  flower, 
and    pherb,   I   bear),    and    other   insects   known   to   zoologists 

39    What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  mouth  in  insects  that  live  by  suction? 
40.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  mouth  in  the  Hymeno'ptera  ? 


MOUTH  OF  INSECTS. 


21 


ocelli 


Compound  e$es 
Mandibles  •••• 

I 

Maxillary  pa Ipi  ... .«' 
MaxilltB  or  jaws  .... 

Labial  palpi 


lateral  lobes  of  the  ligula. 


Fig.  7.  —  HEAD   OF  AN   ANTIIOPHORA. 

under  the  common  name  of  Hymenop'tera  (from  the  Greek, 
'i/men,  a  membrane,  and  pteron,  a  wing),  the  buccal  apparatus 
has  an  intermediate  arrangement.  The  upper  lip  or  labrum 
(Jig.  8,  a)  and  the  mandibles  (6)  closely  resemble  those  of  the 
tritores  or  triturating  insects  ;  but  the 
jaws  (c)  and  the  ligula  (d)  are  not 
excessively  prolonged ;  the  first  take 
a  tubular  shape  and  form  a  longi- 
tudinal sheath  for  the  sides  of  the 
ligula :  so  that  these  organs,  joined 
in  a  packet,  constitute  a  trunk,  which 
conveys  the  food,  always  soft  or 
liquid,  upon  which  these  animals  feed. 
This  trunk  is  movable  at  the  base, 
and  flexible  throughout  the  rest  of  its 
extent,  but  never  rolls  itself  up  as  we 
see  in  butterflies.  The  mandibles 
chiefly  serve  the  purpose  of  dividing 
the  materials  of  which  the  hymenop 
terse  make  their  nests,  or  rather,  to 
seize  and  put  to  death  the  prey  whose 
fluids  these  insects  suck.  There  also 
exists  in  the  interior  of  the  buccal  cavity  other  solid  pieces  which 
are  wanting  in  the  fritores ;  they  constitute  valves  destined  to 
close  the  pharynx  or  swallow  every  time  the  movement  of  deglu- 
tition is  not  effected. 


22 


MOUTH  OF  INSECTS. 


Fig.  9.  —  BUG. 


41.  In  the  bugs  (cimex),  plant  lice  (aphis), 
and  other  insects  of  the  order  Hemip'tera,  the 
sucking  apparatus  is  composed  of  the  same  ele- 
ments, but  somewhat  differently  arranged.  The 
mouth  is  armed  with  a  tubular  and  cylindical 
beak,  directed  downwards  and  backwards  (Jig. 
9),  and  is  composed  of  a  sheath  enclosing  four 
stylets  ;  the  sheath  (fig.  10,  a)  is  formed  of  four 
articulations  placed  end  to  end,  and  represents 
the  labium  or  lower  lip ;  &.t  its  base  we  perceive 
an  elongated,  conical  piece,  which  is  analogous 
to  the  labrum ;  the  stylets  (b,  c)  which  are  in 
the  form  of  fine  threads,  stiff  and  dentate  at  the  extremity,  to 
pierce  the  skin  of  animals  or  the  substance  of  plants,  are  the 
representatives  of  the  mandibles  and  maxillae  excessively  elon- 
gated. In  the  hemip'terae  which  live  at  the  expense  of  other 

animals,  the  beak  is  gene- 
rally very  stout  and  fold- 
ed in  a  semicircle  under 
the  head.  In  those  that 
feed  on  the  juices  of 
plants,  it  is,  on  the  con- 
trary, almost  always 
slender,  and,  when  at 
rest,  applied  against  the 


l  / 


a  b  c 

Fig.  10. BUCCAL  APPARATUS  OF  AN  HEMIP'TERA. 


inferior  surface  of  the 
thorax,  betwixt  the  legs 
(fig.  9).  Its  length  is 
sometimes  so  great  as 
to  extend  beyond  the 
posterior  extremity  of 
the  abdomen. 

42.  In  flies,  the  pro- 
boscis or  trunk,  some- 
times soft  and  retractile,  sometimes  horny  and  elongated,  also 
represents  the  labium  or  lower  lip,  and  often  has  palpi  at  its  base  ; 
a  longitudinal  groove  on  its  upper  surface  lodges  the  stylets, 
which  vary  from  two  to  six  in  number;  the  mandibles,  jaws,  and 
ligula  of  the  tritores  are  analogous  to  them.  Sometimes  this  trunk 
acquires  an  enormous  length,  and  sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  it 
is  scarcely  visible. 

43.  In  butterflies  (Papilio)  which  also  feed  on  the  liquid  sub- 
stances they  find  at  the  bottom  of  flowers,  and  have  no  necessity 
for  strong  weapons  to  obtain  them,  there  are  no  lancet-like  stylets ; 

41.  How  is  the  sucking  apparatus  in  Hemi'ptcra  arranged? 

42.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  sucking  apparatus  of  flies  ? 

43.  Describe  tne  sucking  apparatus  of  butterflies. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 


23 


d  """" 


the  mouth  is  furnished  with  a  long  trunk 
(fig.  11,  d)  rolled  spirally,  composed  of 
two  filaments  hollowed  into  a  gutter  on  the 
internal  side,  which  are  in  fact  the  jaws 
excessively  elongated  and  modified  in  form. 
At  the  base  of  this  tube,  we  observe  in  front 
a  small  membranous  piece  which  is  the 
representative  of  the  labrum,  and,  on  each 
side,  a  small  tubercle,  the  last  vestiges  of 
the  mandibles.  We  also  perceive  in  the 
same  situation  the  rudiments  of  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  (e),  and  behind  we  find  a  little 
triangular  lip  bearing  two  very  long  labial 
palpi,  composed  of  three  articulations,  al- 
most always  hairy  and  furnished  with  scales. 

44.  The  digestive  tube  (fig.  12)  is  always  open  at  both  ends, 


Fig. 


11. BEAK   OP   A 

BUTTERFLY. 


Fig.  12. DIGESTION    OF   INSECTS. 


and  extends  from  the  mouth 
to  the  anus ;  sometimes  it  is 
straight,  at  others,  more  or 
less  flexuous;  and  here,  as 
in  animals  of  a  higher  order, 
it  is  very  short  in  carni'vor- 
ous  insects,  and  very  long  in 
those  species  which  feed  on 
vegetable  substances.  Some- 
times it  preserves  nearly  the 
same  diameter  throughout  its 
whole  length ;  but,  generally, 
it  presents  enlargements  and 
contractions  which  enable  us 
to  distinguish  an  oesophagus, 
a  stomach  and  an  intestine. 
Sometimes  we  find  several 
stomachs  (/,  g,  h)  which 
have  been  named,  crop,  giz- 
gard,  and  chyll'ferous  ven~ 
tricle. 

45.  On  each  side  we  see 


Explanation  of  Fig.  11. — Beak  of  a  butterfly  ; — a,  the  head  ; — 6,  antenna  ; 
— c,  the  eye ; — d,  proboscis  or  trunk  spirally  rolled  ; — e,  rudiment  of  maxil- 
lary palpi. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  12.— Digestive  apparatus  of  an  insect;— a,  the  head, 
— 6,  the  antennae  ; — c,  the  mandibles  ; — d,  the  palpi ; — c,  the  oesophagus  ; — 
/,  g,  h,  the  stomachs ; — i,  the  intestine  ;— j,  the  rectum ; — k,  the  biliary  vea. 
sels ; — I,  secreting  organs  ; — m,  the  anus. 

44.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  digestive  organs  in  insects?     For 
what  is  the  digestive  tube  of  earni'vorous  insects  remarkable  ?    Of  what 
parts  do  the  digestive  organs  consist  ? 

45.  What  are  biliary  vessels  ? 


24  CIRCULATION. 


a  number  of  long,  delicate  tubes,  filled  with  a  yellowish  liquid, 
terminating  in  the  digestive  tube ;  these  are  the  biliary  vessels 
(&),  which  perform  the  functions  of  the  liver. 

46.  We  find  salivary  organs  in   a   great  many  insects,  and 
generally  they  are  more  developed  in  the  suctorial  than  in  the 
triturating  species.     They  are  simple,  floating  tubes,  which  some- 
times terminate  in  a  kind  of  utri'culse  or  little  membranous  sacs, 
which  communicate  with  the  pharynx  by  means  of  intermediate 
excretory  ducts  or  canals. 

47.  Towards  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  intestinal  canal,  we 
also  find  other  secreting  organs  of  various  forms  (I)  which  serve 
for  the  elaboration  of  those  particular  liquids  which  many  insects 
cause  to  exude  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen  when  they 
are  disturbed ;  the  venom  of  the  bee  is  an  instance. 

48.  Sometimes  the  nutritive  liquid  resulting  from  the  digestion 
of  food  is  immediately  appropriated  to  assimilation,  sometimes,  on 
the  contrary,  a  part  of  it  seems  to  be  held  in  reserve  to  be  em- 
ployed on  a  future  occasion.     The  species  of  reservoir  which  is 
regarded  as  subserving  this  curious  purpose  is  the  mass  of  fatty 
tissue  Gurrounding  the  viscera. 

49.  Insects  have  no  circulation  properly  so  called ;  the  nutri- 
tive liquid  is  diffused  among  all  the  organs  and  penetrates  them 
by  imbibition.     But  there  exists,  nevertheless,  on  the  dorsal  sur- 
face of  the  animal,  immediately  beneath  the  integuments,  a  sort 
of  longitudinal  tube,  surrounded  by  fleshy  fibres,  which  appears 
to  be  the  rudiment  of  a  heart,  for  we  observe  in  it  alternate  con- 
tractions and  dilatations  similar  to  those  of  the  same  organ  in 
other  animals.     But  this  canal  does  not  appear  to  give  off  any 
branches ;  there  are  no  arteries  nor  veins. 

The  blood,  become  venous  by  its  action  on  the  different  tissues 
of  the  economy,  is  not  carried  to  any  particular  point  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  to  regain  its  vivifying  quali- 
ties. If  respiration  were  carried  on  in  the  ordinary  way,  by 
means  of  lungs  or  the  external  surface  of  the  body,  it  would  be 
extremely  imperfect ;  but  the  disadvantage  which  seemingly  must 
result  from  this  great  imperfection  in  so  important  a  function  as 
the  circulation  does  not  really  exist.  Nature  has  dispensed  with 
the  necessity  of  circulating  the  blood  in  insects,  by  carrying, 
the  air  in  them,  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  by  means  of  a  multitude 
of  canals  which  ramify  almost  infinitely  in  the  substance  of  the 
organs  (fig.  13). 

46.  What  are  the  characters  of  salivary  glands  in  insects  ? 

47.  Where  is  the  venom  of  the  bee  formed  ? 

48.  Is  digested  food  in  all  cases  immediately  appropriated  to  the  purposes 
of  assimilation  ? 

49.  How  is  the  blood  circulated  in  insects  ?     How  is  the  want  of  circula- 
tion compensated  for  in  insects  ? 


RESPIRATION  OF  INSECTS. 


25 


spiracles. 


Fig.  14. 

STIGMATA. 


S   S  S  8 

Fig.  13. RESPIRATORY    ORGANS. 


50.  All  insects  have  an  aerial 
respiration ;    but  instead  of  re- 
ceiving    air      into     pulmonary 
cavities    to  which    the   blood  is 
sent  by  the  action  of  the  circu- 
lating organs,  as  is  the  case  in 
most  animals,  they  breathe  by 
means  of  a  multitude  of  canals 
(fg.  13)  which  convey  the  air 
to  every  part  of  the  body  ,•  these 
canals  are  named  trachea.    The 
external    openings   of   the   tra- 
cheae  are    called    stigmata    or 

These  openings  have 
the  form  of  a 
button-hole  (Jig. 
14),  and  are 
placed  on  each 
side  of  the  body. 
In  this  respect, 
the  organization 
of  tracheal  ara'chnidans  resembles  that  of  insects. 

51.  Sometimes    the  trachea   have  enlargements  along  their 
course  like  vesicles ;  they  all  communicate  freely 

with  each  other ;  they  are  ramified  like  roots, 
and  their  last  divisions  penetrate  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  organs.  Their  structure  is  the 
same  as  in  tracheal  ara'chnidans,  that  is,  they 
arc  formed  of  a  cartilaginous  filament  rolled 
spirally,  so  as  to  constitute  a  tube  (Jig.  15). 
Were  it  not  for  this  arrangement  the  sides  of  the  tube  would 
be  forced  together  by  atmospheric  pressure,  and  the  animal 
would  be  suffocated  for  want  of  air.  Respiration  seems  to  be 
effected  by  the  movements  of  the  abdomen.  In  insects  this  func- 
tion is  very  active :  considering  their  size,  they  consume  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  air,  and  quickly  suffocate  when  deprived  of 

Explanation  of  Fig.  13. — Respiratory  apparatus  of  insects.  The  mask 
or  covering'  of  an  insect,  showing"  the  principal  trachea  which  convey  air  to 
all  parts  of  the  body  ; — s,  s,  s,  s,  s,  the  stigmata  or  spiracles. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  14. — A  stigmata  magnified  ; — s,  the  opening  of  the 
stigmata  or  spiracle;  tr,  a  tracheoe  arising  from  it. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  ]  5.— A  portion  of  tracheae  considerably  enlarged  to 
show  its  structure ;  we  see  at  (a)  the  end  of  the  spiral  of  which  the  tube  is 
composed,  partly  unrolled. 

50.  How  do  insects  breathe  ?     What  are  tracheae  ?     What  are  stigmata  * 

51.  How  are  the  tracheae  arranged  ?     What  is   the  peculiarity  of  their 
structure  ? 


Fig.  15. 

TRACHEA. 


26  METAMORPHOSES  OF  INSECTS. 

oxygen  ;  but  when  they  are  seemingly  dead  from  this  cause,  they 
for  a  long  time  retain  the  power  o;'  being  restored  to  life. 

52.  The  sexes  are  distinct  in  these  animals,  and  frequently  the 
males   and  females  differ  widely  from  each  other.     There  fre- 
quently exists  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen  of  the  female  an 
ovipositor  or  borer  or  some  other  organ  by  means  of  which  she 
prepares  a  hole  for  the  reception  of  her  eggs.     Some  are  vivi'- 
parous,  but  almost  all  insects  lay  eggs,  but  they  do  not  deposit 
them  wherever  they  may  happen  to  be ;  they  require  them  to  be 
carefully  lodged   in   some   place   where  the  young    animals    on 
escaping  can  readily  obtain  the  kind  of  food  proper  for  them.     In 
this  respect  the  instinct  of  insects  is  most  surprisingly  developed, 
and  it  would  be  interesting  to  study  the  various  plans  they  adopt 
to  secure  this  object,  but  our  present  limits  will  not  permit. 

53.  When    an     insect   escapes    from    its    egg,    it    sometimes 
possesses  the  same  form  which   it  is   to  preserve  through  life; 
but  in  the  ^'reat  majority  of  instances,  it   differs  more  or  less 
from  its  mother,  as  well  as  from  the  form  it  itself  is  destined  to 
assume.     Before   attaining    its    perfect    state,  it   undergoes  con- 
siderable changes,  which  are  designated  under  the  name  of  meta- 
morphoses ;  it  passes  through  two  successive  conditions,  termed 
the  larva  (Latin,  a  mask,  because  the  perfect  form  of  the  insect 
is  concealed   as   it  were  under  a  mask),  and  nympha,  pupa,  or 
chrysalis  (from  the  Greek,  chrusos,  gold,  because  the  transparent 
covering  in  which  the  animal  is  enclosed  while  in  this  state,  in 
many  instances  reflects  a  metallic  lustre).     When  it  has   passed 
through   these  two  stages  of  its   metamorphosis,  it    becomes  a 
perfect  insect,  "and  is  then  called  imago.     But  these  changes  are 
not  always  of  the  same  nature;  some  insects  experience  only  a 
partial  metamorphosis,  some  a  demi-metamorphosis,  and  others, 
a   complete   metamorphosis    (from   the    Greek,  meta,  indicating 
change,  and  morphe,  form1).' 

54.  Those  insects  which  undergo  partial  metamorphosis  ac- 
quire after   birth   a   number  of  legs,   more  or  less,  but  always 
remain  without  wings.    The  Parasi'ta  and  Thysanou'ra  experience 
this  description  of  metamorphosis. 

55.  Those    insects  which  undergo  demi-metamorphosis  differ 
very  little  from  what  they  are  to  become  ;  their  larva  resembles 

52.  How  are  the  young  of  insects  produced  ? 

53.  What  is  meant  by  the  metamorphosis  of  an  insect  ?     What  is  a  larva  ? 
What  is  a  nympha  ?     To  what  condition  of  insects  are  the  terms  pupa  and 
chrysalis  applied  ?     What  is  an  imago  1     Is  the  metamorphosis  the  same  in 
extent  in  all  insects  ? 

54.  What  is  meant  by  partial  metamorphosis? 

55.  What  is  meant  by  demi-metamorphosis  ? 


LARVAE. 


27 


Fig.  16.— LARVA  OF  A  GRASSHOPPER. 


the  perfect  insect  except 
that  it  is  unprovided  with 
wings.  The  annexed 
figure  (16)  of  the  larva 
of  a  grasshopper  illus- 
trates this  condition. 
When  it  becomes  a  nym- 
pha,  we  discover  that  it 
has  the  stumps  or  rudi- 
ments of  wings ;  at  the 
last  moult  they  become 
perfectly  developed,  and 
the  insect  then  acquires 
the  form  it  preserves 
through  life. 

56.  The  larva  of  those  insects  which  undergo  complete  meta- 
morphosis, in  no  respect  resembles  the  imago  or  perfect  animal, 
and  in  proof  of  this  it  is  only 
necessary  to  recollect  that  the  but- 
terfly escapes  from  its  egg  in  the 
form  of  a  caterpillar.  Larvas 
(fgs.  17  and  18)  are  in  general 
soft,  cylindrical,  or  fusiform,  pre- 
senting at  intervals  a  number  of 
contractions  which  divide  the  body 
into  as  many  rings  or  segments. 
Sometimes  they  have  the  appear- 
ance of  a  worm,  and  are  unpro-  « 
vided  with  legs,  as  in  the  larva  of  the  bee ;  in  other  instances, 
they  have  appendages  of  this  kind  (fig'  18),  and  then  they  are 
generally  called  caterpil- 
lars. These  animals  have 
a  head  provided  with  jaws, 
several  small  eyes,  very 
short  legs,  six  of  which  are 
scaly  and  pointed,  and 
attached  to  the  three  rings 

next  to  the  head ;  they  have  also  other  legs,  varying  in  number, 
which  are  membranous  and  attached  to  the  last  rings  of  the  body. 
After  having  lived  for  a  certain  time  in  the  larva  state,  the  insect 
bscomes  transformed  into  a  nympha,  and  is  then  motionless,  and 

56.  What   are   the    general   characters  of  larvae?       What    are    cater- 
pillars?    How  does  the  larva   prepare  to  become  a  nympha?     What  arc 


Fig. 


17.  —  LARVA.  —  MEASURING 
WORM. 


Fig.  18. LARVA. — SILK- WORM. 


28 


NYMPHS. 


Fig.  19.  —  NYMPHA. 


does  not  eat  (Jig.  19).  Before  under- 
going this  metamor'phosis,  the  larva 
often  prepares  for  itself  a  defence  or 
protection,  and  encloses  itself  in  a  shell 
or  cocoon  (fg.  20),  which  it  makes  of 
various  materials  ;  but  more  especially 
of  the  silk  secreted  by  organs  analo- 
gous to  salivary  glands,  and  spun  by 
the  assistance  of  spinnarets  hollowed 
in  the  lips.  The  insect,  in  the  state 
of  a  nympha,  possesses  all  the  parts 
of  the  perfect  animal,  but  contracted 

and  covered  up,  sometimes  by  a  delicate  pellicle 
through  which  they  may  be  seen,  giving  the 
nympha  the  appearance  of  a  bandaged  mummy  ; 
sometimes  by  a  pretty  thick  skin,  which  is 
moulded  over  the  body ;  at  other  times,  by  the 
dried  skin  of  the  larva,  which  forms  a  sort  of 
case  or  shell  around  the  animal,  presenting  th© 
form  of  an  egg.  Finally,  after  having  remained 
in  this  state  of  immobility  for  a  period  varying 
in  duration,  the  perfect  insect  (imago)  escapes 
from  the  nympha,  and  the  external  organs,  at 
first  humid  and  soft,,  are  dried  by  the  air  and 
acquire  the  consistence  they  afterwards  main- 
tain. These  changes  in  the  external  form  of  the  insect  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  its  life  are  accompanied  by  modifications,  not 
less  remarkable,  in  the  internal  structure  of  the  animal ;  and 
these  change's*  of  organization  induce  others  in  the  habits  of  these 
creatures  as  well  as  in  the  manner  of  feeding. 

57.  The  number  of  insects  is  immense ;  it  is  estimated  that  it 
exceeds  sixty  thousand  species,  and  they  differ  very  much  from 
each  other  both  in  their  external  form  and  manner  of  living. 

Insects,  so  remarkable  for  their  organization,  are  still  more  so 
for  their  habits  and  for  the  admirable  instinct  with  which  nature 
has  endowed  a  great  number  of  them.  Their  cunning  plans  for 
procuring  food  or  for  escaping  their  enemies,  and  the  industry 
they  display  in  their  works,  surprise  all  who  witness  them ;  and 
when  we  see  them  united  in  societies  to  gain  the  power  denied  to 
their  individual  feebleness,  aiding  each  other,  dividing  the  toils 
necessary  for  the  prosperity  of  the  community,  providing  for 
their  future  wants,  and  frequently  regulating  their  actions  accord- 

Explanation  of  Fig.  20. — A  nympha  with  one-half  of  its  shell  or  cocoon 
removed. 

57.  What  is  the  number  of  insects  known  ? 


Fig.  20. 

NYMPHA. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSECTS. 


29 


ing  to  accidental  circumstances,  we  are  astounded  to  find  in  these 
creatures,  so  small  and  apparently  so  imperfect,  instincts  so  varied 
and  so  powerful,  and  intellectual  combinations  which  so  closely 
resemble  reasoning. 

58.  The  division  of  this  class  into  orders  principally  depends 
upon  the  form  of  the  buccal  apparatus,  the  organs  of  locomotion, 
and  the  metamorphosis. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  principal  characters  of  the  several  orders 
of  the  class  of  Insects  : 

ORDERS. 

folded  only  ) 

transverse-  >COLEO'PTERA. 


mastication. 
Wings  four  ; 
the  two  an- 
terior 

in  form  of 
elytra  ; 
those  of  the  ^ 
second  pair 

folded      in} 
two  direc-  \ 
tions,      or  ^ORTHO'PTERA. 
lengthwise  1 
.only.           J 

Membranous  and  re-  1 
ticulated  like  the  pos-  VNEDRO'PTERA. 
.  terior.                               ) 

undergo 
metamorphosis. 
Mouth  formed  ' 
for 

'     All  membranous,tran-1 
sparent  and  divided  into  I 
largecells.    Mouth  arm-  J>HYMENO'PTERA. 
ed  with  distinct  mandi-  I 
bles.                                  J 

ffour,« 

All  covered  by  a  kind  1 
of  coloured  dust.  Mouth  I  T  Ppinf>r  „-,_„. 
armed    with    a    spiral  f  LEPIDO  PTERA- 
trunk  only.                      J 

n  ("have 
P     three 

17 

%      legs 
(  and 

suction. 
Wings   ' 

1 

The  anterior  ordinari-  ") 
ly  in  form  of  demi-ely-  | 
tra.    Mouth  armed  with  ^HEMI'PTEKA. 
a   conical    beak,  either  j 
.straight  or  curved.           J 

C  folded  like  a  fan.    >RHIPI'PTERA. 
two,            < 
(  Not  folded.             ^DI'PTERA. 

not  subject  to  metamorphosis.  ru"Pgrovided  with  *PPend'  j  PARASI'TA. 


No  wings.    Abdomen 


age 

provided  with  false   legs,  )  rr,  „,          , 
or  appendages  for  leaping,  j  T«YSANOU  RA. 


Sf*  The  Myriapods,  which  have  twenty-four  pairs  of  legs  or  more,  and  are  without 
wings,  now  form  a  distinct  class,  and  are  not  insects  properly  so  called.  They  were 
formerly  included  among  the  apterous  insects. 

59.  The  Thysanou'ra,  Para  si' ta,  and  Sucto'ria,  have  no  wings, 
and  for  this  reason  are  frequently  spoken  of  under  the  common 
name  of  AP'TERA  (from  the  Greek,  a,  without,  and  pteron,  wing), 
or  apterous  insects.  All  other  orders  of  insects  have  wings,  and 
are  spoken  of  by  the  common  name  of  winged  insects. 

56.  How  is  the  class  of  insects  divided  ? 
59.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  apterous  insects  ? 
3* 


30  THYSANOURA.— PARASITA LOUSE. 


LESSON  II. 

AP'TERA. — ORDER  or  THYSANOU'RA.  • 

ORDER  OF  PARASI'TA. — Louse — Ticks. 

ORDER  OP  SUCTO'RIA. — Flea — Chigre. 

ORDER  OF  COLEOP'TERA. — Characters — Division — Pentame'rans 
Cicin'dela — Carabus — Gyrinvs,  or  Water-beetle — Fire-fies — 
Glow-worm — Borers — Derme'stes — May-bugs — Scarabeus  — 
Heterome'rans  —  Blistering -files — Teterame'rans — Weevils — 
Trime'rans — Lady-bug. 

ORDER  OF  ORTHO'PTERA. — Characters — Earwigs — Mole-crick- 
ets— Crickets — Grasshoppers — Migratory  Locusts. 

1.  Hexapods  or  true  insects  comprise  all  those  which    have 
three  pairs  of  legs:  they  all  have  a  head  distinct  from  the  thorax, 
and  the  abdomen  has  no  extremities  attached  to  it ;  some  are 
apterous  (without  wings),. others  are  winged. 

2.  Although  apterous  insects  are  not  very  numerous,  they  form 
three   distinct   orders ;    namely,    Thysanou'ra,    Parasi'ta,   and 
Sucto'ria. 

ORDER  OF  THYSANOU'RA. 

3.  The   Thysanourse   (from  the   Greek,  thusan,  bushy,  arid 
oura,  tail)  are  small  wingless  insects  that  do  not  undergo  meta- 
morphosis ;  the  abdomen  terminates  in  filiform  appendages,  or  is 
furnished  with  organs  by  means  of  which  they  are   enabled  to 
leap. 

ORDER  OF  PARASI'TA. 

4.  We  give  the  name  of  parasites  (hanger  on)  to  those  apterous 
insects  which  do  not  undergo  metamorphosis  and  whose  abdomen 
is  without  any  appendage  ;  their  mouth  is  chiefly  internal  and  is 
armed  with  a  kind  of  sucker ;  their  body  is  flattened, 

and,  as  their  name  indicates,  they  live  upon  other  ani- 
mals ;  but  they  are  only  found  on  mammals  and  birds. 
Lice  (Pediculus),  of  one  of  which  the  annexed  figure 
(21)  is  an  enlarged  representation,  and  dog-ticks 
(Ricinus)  belong  to  this  order.  Their  eggs  are  known.  Fig.  21, 
under  the  name  of  nits.  LOUSE. 

1.  Do  all  insects  possess  wings  ? 

2.  What  orders  of  insects  are  wingless  ? 

3.  What  are  thysanou'ra  ? 

4.  Give  examples  of  insects  of  the  order  Parasita. 


SUCTORIA.— FLEAS.— COLEOPTERA.  31 

ORDER  OF  SUCTO'RIA. 

5.  Suctorial  insects,  like  the  preceding,  are  ap'terous,  but  they 
do  not  undergo  metamorphosis.     The  body  is  very  much  com- 
pressed (jig.  22),  and  the  hind  legs  are  adapted  to  leaping.     The 
mouth  is  extended  in  the  form  of  a  trunk  or  beak,  which  contains 
three  bristle-like  lancets,  and  performs  the  functions  of  a  sucker. 
They  undergo  complete  metamorphosis,  and  in  the  larva  state, 
are  in  form  of  little  worms  without  feet ;  in  the  imago  or  perfect 
state,  they  live  on  quadrupeds  or  birds. 

This  order  comprises  but  a  single  genus,  that  of  the  Fleas. 

6.  The  common  flea — Pulex  irritans — (j#g'.22)  lives  upon  dogs, 
cats,  and  men,  whose  blood  it  sucks.     The  chigre — Pulex  pene- 
trans — very  common  in  the  warm  parts  of  America,  is  armed 
•with  a  beak  as  long  as  its  body.     The  female  carries  her  eggs 
in  a  sack  under  the  abdomen,  and  by  its  rapid 

growth,  this  part  in  a  short  time  acquires  the 
size  of  a  small  pea,  while  the  animal  itself  is 
scarcely  as  large  as  a  common  flea.  It  in- 
sinuates itself  beneath  the  skin,  and  into  the 
flesh,  particularly  about  the  feet  and  toes,  F-  r>2_ 
where  it  deposits  its  eggs,  and  sometimes 
causes  great  pain  and  ill-conditioned  sores.  The  only  remedy 
is  to  remove  the  sack  of  eggs  with  a  needle,  and  fill  the  hole 
with  strong  mercurial  ointment.  This  will  be  found  effectual. 
It  also  attacks  monkeys,  dogs,  &c. 

ORDER  OF  COLEOFTERA. 

7.  The  order  of  Coleop'tera  (from  the  Greek,  koleos,  a  case, 
and  pteron,  wing)  comprises  insects  which  have  a  mouth  armed 
with  jaws,  and  four  wings,  differing  from  each  other  in  texture. 
The  first   pair   are   horny  elytra  (from  the    Greek,  elittron,   a 
sheath),  which  are  not  suitable  for  flight,  but  constitute  a  covering 
or  shield  for  the  second  pair,  which  are  membranous,  and  when 
in  a  state  of  repose,  folded  transversely. 

8.  The  tegumentary  envelope  of  these  insects  is  almost  always 
remarkably  hard,  and  sometimes  forms  a  solid,  and  almost  crus- 
taceous  cuirass.     The  mouth   is  formed  for  the  mastication  of 
food,  and  is  armed  with  a  pair  of  mandibles,  a  pair  of  maxillee, 
bearing  palpi,  and  a  labium  or  lower  lip,  also  bearing  palpi  (fig. 
4).     The  wings  possess  peculiarities  of  structure  which  it  is  im 
portant  to  noie :  the  first  pair  are  of  the  same  consistence  as  other 

5.  How  is  the  order  Sucto'ria  characterized  ? 

6.  What  are  chigres  ? 

7.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  order  Coleop'tera? 

8.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  mouth  of  Coleop'tera  ?     What  is  the 
nature  of  the  wings  ?    How  is  the  abdomen  attached  to  the  thorax  ? 


32         CHARACTERS  OF  COLEOPTER^E. 

parts  of  the  tegumentary  skeleton,  and  form  two  sheaths  or  solid 
elytra,  joined  together  by  a  straight  edge,  sometimes  solidly 
united,  forming  a  kind  of  shield  over  the  abdomen  (figs.  23  and 
26).  Sometimes  these  elytra  are  rudimentary,  but  are  never 
entirely  wanting  in  both  sexes.  The  same  is  not  true  of  the 
wings  of  the  second  pair,  which  are  membranous,  much  larger 
than  the  elytra,  and  when  in  a  state  of  repose,  folded  transversely 
at  their  extremity ;  sometimes  they  are  wanting,  and  then  the  in- 
sect is  incapable  of  flying.  There  is  no  peculiarity  of  the  legs 
worthy  of  special  remark.  The  abdomen  is  sessile,  that  is,  it  is 
broadest  where  it  joins  the  thorax,  and  on  each  side  of  the  rings 
which  form  it,  there  is,  on  the  upper  part,  an  opening,  which  is  a 
stigmata. 

9.  The  metamorphosis  which  the  Coleop'teree  undergo  after  es- 
caping from  the  egg  is  complete.     The  larva  resembles  a  soft 
worm,  the  head  of  which  as  well  as  the  three  first  rings  of  the 
body  are  scaly  (figs.  4,  9,  19,  and  25).     They  generally  have 
three  pairs  of  horny  legs,  terminating  in    a   point.     Sometimes 
there  are  no  legs,  or  they  are  replaced  by  small  fleshy  tubercles ; 
but  we  never  find  a  greater  number  of  these  appendages.     The 
mouth  has  the  same  organization  as  the  perfect  insect ;  the  eyes, 
on  the  contrary,  are  merely  represented  by  small  granular  bodies, 
which  seem  to  consist  of  an  assemblage  of  simple  eyes,  which 
never  exist  in  adult  Coleop'terae  ;  and  we  perceive  on  each  side  of 
the  body  nine  stigmata  arranged  in  a  series. 

10.  The  nympha  is  always  inactive;  sometimes  it  is  enclosed 
in  a  shell  or  cocoon,  generally  composed  of  different  substances 
joined  together  by  a  viscid,  silky  matter ;  sometimes  it  is  naked. 
The  duration  of  these  changes  and  the  mode  of  life,  as  well  in 
the  larva  as  in  the  perfect  insect,  vary  in  the  different  families 
of  this  order. 

11.  The  number  of  Coleop'terse  is  immense,  and  to  distinguish 
them  more  readily  they  are  divided  into  four  sections,  according 
to  the  number  of  articulations  or  joints  of  the  tarsi ;  namely, 

1st.  The  Pentame'rans  (from  the  Greek,  pente,  five,  and  meros, 
a  joint),  in  which  the  tarsus  of  all  the  legs  is  composed  of  five 
joints. 

2d.  The  Heterome'rans  (from  the  Greek,  'eteros,  various,  and 
xieros,  joint),  in  which  the  tarsi  have  four  articulations  on  the  two 
Tore  legs,  and  five  on  the  others. 

3d.  The  Teterame'rans  (from  the  Greek,  tetteres,  four,  and 
meros,  joint),  in  which  the  tarsi  pf  all  the  legs  have  four  articula- 
tions 

9.  What  description  of  metamorphosis  do  the  Coleop'terse  undergo  ? 

10.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  nymph®  of  Coleop' terse  ? 

11.  How  is  the  order  of  Coleop' tera  divided  ? 


PENTAMERANS.— CARABUS.— GYRINUS.  <33 


4th.  The  Trime'rans  (from  the  Greek,  treis,  three,  and  meros, 
joint  or  part),  in  which  all  the  tarsi  have  three  articulations. 

COLEOP'TEROUS  PENTAME'RANS. 

12.  This   division   is   composed   of  several    families,   among 
which  are  the  Carni'vora,  the  Ser'ricornes,  the  Cla'vicornes,  and 
the  Lame'llicornes. 

13.  The  family  of  Carni'vora  (from  the  Latin,  caro,  in  the 
genitive,  carnis,  flesh,  and  roro,  I  eat)  is  distinguished  by  having 
double  palpi  on  the  maxillee.     These  insects  pursue  and  devour 
others.     Several  have  no  wings  under  the  wing-covers  or  elytra. 
The  larvee  are  also  very  carni'vorous.     This  family  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  Coleop'tera,  and  contains  a  great  many  tribes  and 

£3nera.  Among  them  we  shall  mention  the  Cicin'dela  (from  the 
atin,  cicendela,  a  glow-worm),  a  genus  of  small  insects,  pos- 
sessed of  brilliant  metallic  colours,  commonly  met  with  in  dry, 
sunny  situations.  They  run  with  considerable  swiftness,  take 
wing  the  moment  they  are  approached,  but  alight  at  a  short  dis- 
tance. The  larvse  excavate  holes  in  the  earth,  and  such  is  their 
voracity  that  they  devour  other  larva?  of  the  same  species,  which 
have  taken  up  their  abode  in  the  neighbourhood. 

14.  The  Carabi —  Carabus  —  which  generally  conceal  them- 
selves under  stones  or  in  the  earth,  one 

species  of  which,  the  Carabus  auratus 
(fig.  23),  is  very  common  in  the  environs 
of  Paris.  It  is  about  an  inch  long,  and 
remarkable  for  the  brilliance  of  its  co- 
lours ;  it  is  golden  green  above  and  black 
below.  All  the  Carabi  are  swift  runners, 
and  when  they  have  wings,  rarely  make 
use  of  them.  Most  of  them  exhale  a 
fetid  odour,  and  when  disturbed,  they 
throw  out  from  the  mouth  and  anus  a 
caustic  or  acrid  liquid. 

15.  The    genus    Gy'rinvs    (from    the  pig.  23. 
Greek,  guros,  a  circle)  comprises  aquatic          CARABUS  AURATUS. 
insects   that   pass    the    greater  part   of 

their  lives  in  the  water,  but  they  nevertheless  are  obliged  to 
visit  the  surface  to  breathe.  Their  four  anterior  legs  are  in  form 
of  fins.  They  are  often  seen  in  numerous  groups  on  the  surface 
of  stagnant'  pools ;  they  swim  with  great  velocity,  forming  cir- 
cular tracks  in  various  directions. 

12.  How  are  coleop'terous  Pentame'rans  divided? 

13.  How  is  the  family  of  Carni'vora  distinguished? 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Carabus  ? 

15.  How  is  the  genus  Gy'rinus  characterized  ? 


WATER-BEETLES. 


Fi^.24. 

LARVA. 


The  water-beetle  (Dytiscus)  is  represented  in  the  larva  state 
(fig.  24),  in  the  nympha  state  (fig.  25),  in  the  imago  or  perfect 
insect  (jig.  26). 

"Nothing  is,  perhaps,  better 
calculated  to  excite  the  admira- 
tion of  the  student  of  animated 
nature,  than  the  amazing-  results 
produced  by  the  slightest  devia- 
tions from   a  common  type  of 
organization  ;  and  in  examining 
the  changes  required  in  order  to 
metamorphose  an  organ  which 
we  have  already  seen  perform- 
ing such  a  variety  of  offices  into 
fins  adapted  to  an  aquatic  life, 
this  circumstance   must   strike 
the  mind  of  the  most  heedless 
observer.     The   limbs   used   in 
swimming    exhibit    the     same 
parts,  the  same  number  of  joints,  and  almost  the 
same  shape,  as  those  employed  for  creeping,  climb- 
ing, leaping,  and   numerous  other  purposes ;  yet 
how  different  is  the  function  assigned  to  them  ! 
In  the   common  water-beetle  (fig.  26)    the   two 
anterior  pairs  of  legs,  that  could  be  of  small  ser- 
vice as  instruments  of  propulsion,  are  so  small  as  to  appear  quite  dispropor 
tionate  to  the  size  of  the  insect,  while  the  hinder  pair  are 
of  great  size  and  strength ;  the  last-mentioned  limbs  are, 
moreover,  removed  as  far  backwards   as  possible  by  the 
development  of   the   hinder   segment,  of   the    thorax,    in 
order  to   approximate  their  origins  to  the  centre  of  the 
body,  and  the  individual  segments  composing  them  are 
broad  and  compressed,  so  as  to  present  an  extensive  sur- 
face to  the  water,  which  is  still  further  enlarged  by  the 
presence  of  flat  spines,  appended  to  the  end  of  the  tibia, 
as  well  as  of   a  broad  fringe  of  stiff  hairs    inserted    all 
around  the  tarsus.     The  powerful  oars  thus  formed  can 
open  until  they  form  right  angles  with  the    axis  of  the 
body,  and  from  the  strength  of  their  stroke  are  well  adapt- 
ed to  the  piratical  habits  of  their  possessors,  who  wage  successful  war,  not 
only  with  other  aquatic  insects  and  worms,  but  even  with  small  fishes,  the 
co-inhabitants  of  the  ponds  wherein  they  live." —  T.  Rymer  Jones. 

16.  Other  coleop'terous  Pentame'rans,  which  have  but  two  palpi 
on  the  maxillae,  and  filiform  or  saw-like  antennse,  belong  to  the 
family  of  Ser'ricornes  (from  the  Latin,  serra,  a  saw,  and  cornv, 
horn),  are  worthy  attention. 

17.  Of  this  number  are  the  fire-flies — Elater — (from  the  Greek, 
elater,  a  leaper),  which  have  the  power  of  leaping  when  placed  on 
the  back.     If  a  beetle  be  seen  to  fall  upon  its  back,  and  instead 
of  making  the  ordinary  efforts  to  set  itself  on  its  legs,  bends  its 

16    How  is  the  family  of  Ser'ricornes  characterized  ? 
17.  What  arc  the  habits  of  fire-flies? 


Fig.  26. 

V7ATER- BEETLE. 


LAMPYRA.— BORERS,  &c. 


35 


Fig.  28. 

GLOW-WORM. 


Fig.  27. 

LAMPYRA. 


head  towards  its  tail,  raising  this  part,  and  repeating  this  action 
until  it  has  fallen  on  its  feet,  such  a  beetle  may  be  recognised  at 
once  as  a  species  of  Elater.  These  beetles  are  often  found  on 
flowers  and  on  the  grass :  like  many  other  coleop'terous  insects, 
when  approached  they  fall  to  the  ground  and  feign  to  be  dead. 
There  is  one  species  (Elater  noctilucus)  about  an  inch  long, 
which  inhabits  South  America,  and  has  two  brown  spots  on  the 
corselet,  which  at  night  diffuse  a  light  so  bright  that  the  Indians 
make  use  of  them  to  light  them  in  their  nocturnal  labours  and 
excursions. 

18.  There  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris  an  insect,  similar 
to  the  last  in  producing  phosphorescent  light,  the  Lam'pyra  (from 
the  Greek,  lampuros,  a  glow-worm).     The  males  (Jig.  27)  are 

not  particularly  remarkable;  but  the 
female  (fig.  28),  which  is  without 
wings,  diffuses  a  phosphorescent  light  at 
night,  which  circumstance  has  obtained 
for  it  the  common  name  of  glow-worm. 
This  light  issues  from  the  abdomen,  and 
the  animal  can  vary  its  intensity  at 
pleasure.  The  females  of  the  species 
of  Lam'pyra  inhabiting  warm  coun- 
tries, are,  on  the  contrary,  all  winged,  and  in  flying 
through  the  air  after  sunset,  they  often  produce  a  natural  illumi- 
nation comparable  to  numberless  little  moving  stars. 

19.  We  give  the  name  of  borers  (Andbium)  to  small  insects 
which  inhabit  our  dwellings  ;  while  in  the  larva  state  they  are  very 
destructive,  for  then  they  eat  the  floors,  joists,  books,  &c.,  through 
which  they  pierce  little  round  holes  similar  to  those  made  by  a 
very  fine  gimlet ;  their  excrements  form  those  little  pulve'rulent 
heaps  of  worm-eaten  wood  we  often  see  on  the  floors  of  old  houses. 
Another  species  of  borer  in  the  same  manner  eats  farinaceous 
substances,  and  ravages  collections  of  insects. 

20.  Insects  of  the  family  of  Cla'vicornes    (from  the  Latin, 
clava,  a  club,  and  cornu,  horn)  are  characterized  by  antennae  in 
form  of  a  club.     To  this  family  belong  the  Derme'stes  (from  the 
Greek,  derma,  skin,  and  esthio,  I  eat).     They  have  an  oval  body, 
and  their  larvae,  which  feed  on  animal  substances,  commit  great 
depredations  in  fur  stores,  and  in  museums  of  natural  history. 
The  Bacon -beetle  belongs  to  this  family. 

21.  We  place  in  the  family  of  Lame'llicornes  (from  the  Latin, 

18.  What  are  glow-worms  ? 

19.  What  are  the  habits  of  borers?    • 

20.  How  is  the  family  of  Cla'vicornes  characterized  ?     What  are  the 
characters  of  the  Dermes'tes  ? 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Lame'llicornes  ? 


36 


MAY-BUG.— HETEROMERANS. 


Fig.  29. 

HORNED  BEETLE. 


lamella,  a  little  thin  plate,  and  cornu,  horn) 
may-bugs — Melolontha,  —  dung-beetles  —  Co- 
pris  (from  the  Greek,  kopros,  dung),  —  beetles 
— Scarabeus, — and  many  other  coleop'terous 
Pentame'rans  which  have  the  antennae  termi- 
nated by  a  packet  of  lamellae  arranged  like  a 
fan  or  the  leaves  of  a  book  (fg.  29).  They 
all  have  wings,  and  walk  slowly ;  their  body 
is  oval,  and  their  larva?  are  very  injurious  to 
agriculture  from  their  eating  the  roots  of 
plants. 

22.  The   larva   of   the   common    May-bug    or    May-chaffer 

(Melolontha  vulgaris),  which  belongs 
to  the  tribe  of  Cut-worms,  is  one  of 
the  most  destructive  (Jig.  30).  It  lives 
three  or  four  years  without  undergoing 
metamorphosis,  and  during  the  whole 
time  remains  more  or  less  profoundly 
buried  in  the  earth  ;  in  winter  it  falls 
into  a  kind  of  lethargy  and  takes  no 
food.  This  insect  finishes  its  meta- 
morphosis about  the  month  of  Febru- 
ary ;  but  it  is  then  very  soft,  and  does 
not  reach  the  surface  of  the  ground 
till  towards  March  or  April,  and  leaves 

it  about  the  beginning  of  May.  In  the  perfect  state,  May-bugs 
feed  on  leaves,  and  they  are  sometimes  so  numerous  as  to  strip  a 
forest  in  a  short  time.  During  the  day  they  commonly  remain 
at  rest,  but  fly  at  night ;  their  flight  is  heavy  and  noisy,  and  their 
course  is  directed  >  so  badly  that  they  strike  against  every  thing 
that  comes  in  their  way. 

The  species  of  beetle  or  scarabeus,  so  frequently  represented 
by  the  Egyptians,  either  on  their  monuments  or  sculptured  stones, 
which  seems  to  have  been  used  by  them  as  a  hieroglyphic,  an 
amulet,  and  even  as  an  object  of  religious  worship,  is  of  the 
family  of  Lame'llicornes,  and  belongs  to  the  genus  Ateuchus. 

COLEOP'TEROUS  HETEROME'RANS. 

23.  The  section  of  Coleop'terous  Heterome'rans  also  embraces 
very  interesting  insects,  not  on  account  of  the  ravages  they  cause, 
but  on   account  of  their   great   utility  in    medicine.     We   refer 
especially  to  the  Cantha  rides.     These  little  insects  contain  a 
peculiar  irritating  matter,  which,  when  applied  to  the  skin,  has 


Fig.  30. 

LARVA    OF    MAY-BUG. 


22.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  larvae  of  the  May-bug  ? 

23.  What  are  Spanish  flies  ? 


WEE  VILS.— LADY-BUGS.  37 

the  property  of  producing  a  blister.  The  species  employed  in 
medicine  is  the  Cantharis  vesicatoria,  commonly  called  the 
Spanish  fy.  The  body  is  about  half  an^  inch  in  length,  and 
the  elytra  are  long,  flexible,  and  of  a  brilliant  golden  green 
colour ;  it  is  very  common  in  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  Russia, 
where  it  lives  in  great  numbers,  on  the  ash,  the  lily,  privet,  &c. 
The  potatoe  fy,  Cantharis  vitata,  is  an  American  species,  which 
possesses  qualities  similar  to  the  European. 

COLEOPTEROUS  TETRAME'RANS. 

24.  Among  the  Coleopterous  Tetrame'rans  we  place  Weevils, 
which  may  be  readily  recognised  by  having  a  head  elongated  in 
a  kind  of  snout  or  trunk,  upon  which  are  placed  the  antennas. 
These  insects  are  gnawers  and  feed  on  vegetable  substances ;  the 
larvae,  which  are  without  legs,  frequently  cause  a  great  deal  of 
damage  by  attacking  wheat. 

"  Would  it  be  believed,"  says  Wilson,  the  ornithologist,  "  that  the  larvre 
of  an  insect,  or  fly,  no  larger  than  a  grain  of  rice,  should,  silently,  and  in 
one  season,  destroy  some  thousand  acres  of  pine  trees,  many  of  them  two 
or  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  Yet,  who- 
ever passes  along  the  high  road  from  Georgetown  to  Charleston,  in  South 
Carolina,  about  twenty  miles  from  the  former  place,  can  have  striking  and 
melancholy  proofs  of  the  fact.  In  some  places,  the  whole  woods,  as  far  as 
you  can  see  around  you,  are  dead,  stripped  of  the  bark,  their  wintry  look- 
ing arms  and  bare  trunks  bleaching  in  the  sun  and  tumbling  in  ruins  before 
every  blast,  presenting  a  frightful  picture  of  desolation.  Until  some  effec- 
tual preventive  or  more  complete  remedy  can  be  devised  against  these 
insects  and  their  larvae,  I  would  humbly  suggest  the  propriety  of  protecting, 
and  receiving  with  proper  feelings  of  gratitude,  the  services  of  this  and  the 
whole  tribe  of  woodpeckers,  letting  the  odium  of  guilt  rest  on  its  proper 
owners." 

COLEOPTEROUS  TRIME'RAJfS. 

25.  As  an  example  of  Coleopterous  Trime'rans,  we  mention 
the  lady-bug — Coccin'ella  (from  the  Latin,  coccinus,  crimson) — 
so  common  in  our  gardens.     These  beetles  are  of  great  service 
to  the  agriculturist,  and  especially  to  the  hop-grower ;  for  they 
destroy  the  plant-lice  (aphides),  in  vast  numbers  feeding  on  them 
both  in  the  larva  and  perfect  state. 

'  ORDER  OF  ORTHOP'TERA. 

26.  Insects  of  the    order  of   Orthop'tera    (from    the    Greek, 
orthos,  straight,  and  pteron,  wing)  are  distinguished, 

1st.  By  having  the  mouth  armed  with  mandibles  and  maxillae 
arranged  for  mastication. 

24.  How  are  Weevils  characterized? 

25.  To  what  division  of  the  Coleop'tera  does  the  lady-bug  belong  ? 

26.  How  is  the  order  of  Orthop'tera  distinguished  ? 

4 


38  ORTHOPTER^E EAR-WIGS. 

2d.  By  having  four  wings,  the  two  anterior  of  which  constitute 
the  elytra  or  wing-cases,  and  the  two  posterior  are  membranous 
and  folded  longitudinally  when  in  repose,  as  in  the  grasshopper. 

27.  The  body  of  th'ese  insects  is  less  consistent  generally  than 
that  of  the  Coleop'terse,  and  is  elongated  in  form,  as  for  example, 
in  the  mole-cricket,  domestic  cricket,  and  grasshopper.     In  most 
insects  of  this  order  the  head  is  large  and  vertical.     The  elytra 
slightly  cross  each  other,  and    are    almost  always  coria'ceous, 
flexible,  and  reticulated  ;  their  position  varies ;  but  in    a    great 
many  instances  they  are  placed  obliquely  or  tile-like.     The  same 
is  the  case  with  the  wings,  which  are  broad  and  sometimes  folded 
transversely,  as  well  as  lengthwise.     Sometimes  all  the  legs  are 
of  the  same  size  and  shape ;  sometimes  on  the  contrary  they  are 
dissimilar.     Sometimes  the  first  pair  of  legs  differ  in  form  from 
the  others,  and  are  adapted  for  digging  in  the  ground  or  for  seiz- 
ing their  prey ;   at  other  times    the    hind    legs   are  very  much 
developed  and  constitute  leaping  organs ;   in    all  cases  the  last 
articulation  of  the  tarsus  is  terminated  by  two  hooks.     The  abdo- 
men, the  form  of  which  is  usually  elongated,  in  a  great  many 
females  has  appendages  attached  to  its  posterior  extremity,  con- 
stituting a  borer  or  ovipositor,  by  means  of  which  these  insects 
introduce  their  eggs  into  holes  which  serve  their  young  for  nests. 
The   Orthop'terse    undergo  demi-metamorphosis,    and   the   only 
changes  they  experience  consist  in  the  development  of  elytra  and 
wings ;    in  other  respects  the  larva    and  nyrnpha  resemble  'the 
perfect  insect. 

28.  All  the  insects  of  this  order  are  terrestrial,  and  most  of 
them  feed  on  living  plants ;  they  are  very  voracious,  and  some- 
times commit  great  havoc. 

Among  the  most  ^interesting  of  the  Orthop'terse  are  the  ear- wigs, 
mole-crickets,  crickets,  grasshoppers,  and  locusts. 

29.  The  Ear-wigs  (jig.  31)  —  Forficula 
(from  the  Latin,  forfex,  pincers)  —  have  a 
linear  body,  very  short  elytra,  and  the  abdo- 
men is  terminated  by  two  horny  movable 
appendages  resembling  pincers.  These  in- 
sects are  very  common  in  damp  grounds  ; 
they  sometimes  assemble  in  large  numbers, 
and  are  very  destructive  to  fruit  trees.  It 
was  believed  that  they  insinuated  themselves 
into  the  ear,  and  to  this  popular  opinion  is 
due  their  common  name ;  but  it  is  an  error  , 
for  they  only  raise  the  pincers  that  terminate 
.  31—EAR-wio.  -tfae  abdomen-jn  seif.defence. 

27.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Orthop'teree  ? 

28.  What  are  the  habits  of  Orthop'teraB  ? 

29.  How  are  ear-wigs  characterized  ?    Are  they  dangerous  ? 


MOLE-CRICKETS.— CRICKETS. 


39 


lt  32.  —  MOLE-CRICKET. 


30.  The  Mole-crickets—  Grillo-talpa  (fg.  32)—  have  broad, 
flat  fore  legs,  adapted  for  digging;  the  common  Mole-cricket 
(Grillo-talpa  vulgaris)  lives  in  the  ground,  and  is  very  injurious 
from  its  habit  of  digging  subterraneous  passages  like  moles,  and 
cutting  or  detaching  the  roots  of  all  plants  that  come  in  its  way. 


Fig.  33. CRICKET. 

31.  The  Crickets — Gryllus   (Jig.  33)  —  resemble  the  mole- 
cricket,  but  their  fore  legs  are  not  formed  for  digging,  although 
some  of  them  dig  holes.     The  domestic  cricket  (Gryllus  domes- 
ticus]  inhabits  dwellings,  and  usually  seeks  the  warmth  of  the 
chimney.     Crickets  leap  almost  as  well  as  grasshoppers,  and  are 
cot  unlike  them.     Male  crickets  produce  that  sharp  sound,  com- 
monly called    their   song,  by  rubbing  their  thighs   against  the 
wings. 

32.  Grasshoppers  (fgs.  34  and  35)  closely  resemble  crickets- 
but  their  tarsi  have  four  articulations,  and  their  antennae  are  long 
and  consist  of  numerous  small  articulations.     Like  crickets,  their 
hind  legs  are  formed  for  leaping  ;  they  walk  slowly,  but  fly  well. 
The  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  ground  by  means  of  the 

30.  What  are  the  characters  of  mole-crickets  ? 

31.  How  are  crickets  characterized?     What  are  their  habits?     How  is 
their  song  produced  ? 

32.  How  are  grasshoppers  characterized  ?    What  are  migratory  locusts  ? 


40 


GRASSHOPPERS.— MIGRATORY  LOCUSTS. 


sword-like  ovipositor,  which  terminates  the  abdomen.  The  larvae 
have  neither  wings  nor  sheaths  for  containing  them ;  in  other 
respects  they  resemble  the  imago  or  perfect  insect.  The  genus 
Acry'dium  belongs  to  this  group.  These  last  Orthop'tene  have 


Fig.  34. — LARVA  OF  GRASSHOPPER. 

on  each  side  of  the  first  ring  of  the  abdomen  a  kind  of  mem- 
branous drum,  by  means  of  which  they  produce  a  sound,  impro- 
perly called  their  song.  They  are  very  common  in  fields;  they 
frequently  assemble  in  countless  multitudes,  commonly  known  as 
Migratory  locusts,  and  in  this  way  travel  great  distances ;  the 


Fig.  35. GRASSHOPPER. 


passage  of  one  of  these  destructive  bands  sometimes  converts  a 
whole  kingdom  into  a  desert,  in  a  very  short  period.  This 
scourge  is  more  frequent  in  Africa,  but  the  same  species  of  locust 
also  shows  itself  in  Europe.  In  certain  countries  of  Africa,  these 
insects  are  eaten ;  certain  Asiatics,  after  drying  and  grinding 
them,  make  them  into  bread.  At  Bagdad  they  are  sold  in  the 
market. 


HEMIPTERA.  41 


LESSON  III. 

ORDER  OF  HEMIP'TERA. — Organization — -Division — Bed-bug 

— Locust — Plant-lice — Cochineal  Insect. 
ORDER   OF  NEUROP'TERA. — Dragon-flies — Ephemera — White 

Ants. 
ORDER  OF  LEPIDOP'TERA. — Division  —  Butter/ties — Sphinx — 

Bombyx — Silk-worm —  Tinea. 

ORDER  OF  HEMIP'TERA. 

1.  Insects  of  the  order  of  Hemip'tera  (from  the  Greek,  'emisus, 
half,  and  pteron,  wing)  may  be  distinguished  at  first  sight  from 
the    two    preceding   orders,  by  the  conformation  of  the  mouth, 
which,  instead  of  being  adapted  to  masticate  food,  1s  in  the  form 
of  a  long  sucker  resembling  a  tube.     They  have  four  wings ;  the 
two  first  are  in  general  half  coriaceous  and  half  membranous, 
from  which  circumstance  the  order  derives  its  name  (Jigs.  36 
and  37). 

2.  In  general  the  tegumentary  covering  of  the  Hemip'terse  is 
crustaceous  ;  sometimes,  besides  the  compound  eyes  which  exist 
in  all  insects,  we  find  simple  eyes  or  ocelli ;  the  elytra  are  some- 
times one-half  crustaceous  or  coriaceous,  and  half  membranous, 
and    at  other  times   entirely   membranous  ;  sometimes   they,  as 
well   as   the  wings,  are  wanting.     The   metamorphosis   of  the 
Hemip'terce   is   generally  incomplete,  and   consists  only  in  the 
development  of  wings  and  the  growth  of  other  parts  of  the  body. 
The  organization  of  the  mouth  makes  these  insects  necessarily 
suckers ;  it  is  composed  of  a  sheath  formed  by  the  labium  or 
lower  lip,  and  contains  two  pairs  of  filaments. 

3.  This  order  is  divided  into  two  sections ;  namely, 

1st.  The  HETEROP'TER^E  (from  the  Greek,  'eteros,  various,  and 
pteron,  wing),  in  which  the  elytra  are  hard  and  thick  at  the 
base,  and  membranous  at  the  extremity  (Jig-  36). 

2d.  The  HOMOP'TERJE  (from  the  Greek,  omos,  the  same,  and 
pferon,  wing),  in  which  the  elytra  or  first  pair  of  wings  are  of 
the  same  consistence  throughout  (figs.  37  and  39). 

4.  The  Heterop'terce  have  a  large  and  frequently  triangular 

1.  How  is  the  order  of  Hemip'tera  distinguished  ? 

2.  What  is  the  character  of  the  teguments  of  Hemip'terans  ?     What  is 
the  nature  of  their  metamorphosis  ? 

3.  How  is  the  order  of  Hemip'tera  divided  ? 

4.  How  is  the  section  of  Heterop'terse  characterized  ? 

4* 


42  BED-BUGS.— LOCUSTS. 

corselet,  and  a  thick  beak  inserted  beneath  the  front.  They  are 
designated  under  the  common  name  of  bugs,  and  are  divided  into 
GEO'CORIS^E  (from  the  Greek,  ge,  land,  and  koris,  bug)  or  land- 
bugs,  and  HYDRO'CORISJE  (from  the  Greek,  Wor,  water,  and 
is,  bug)  or  water-bugs. 

The  Pentato'ma  (fig.  36)  is  the  type  of  the 
family  of  Geo'corisce. 

5.  The  bugs,  properly  so  called  (Cimex), 
also  belong  to  this  family ;  they  have  a  soft  flat- 
tened body,  and  are  unprovided  with  wings. 
The  too  well-known  insect,  vulgarly  called  the 
bed-bug  (Cimex  lectularius),  sucks  the  blood  of 
Fig.  36.  man  while  he  sleeps,  and  when  in  danger,  or 

PENTATOMA.  when  crushed,  exhales  a  fetid  odour ;  it  is  the 
scourge  of  old  dirty  houses ;  during  winter,  it  is 
torpid.  It  is  pretended  that  this  insect  did  not  exist  in  England 
previous  to  the  fire  of  London  in  1666,  and  that  it  was  transported 
thither  in  timber  from  America.  They  were  known  long  before 
that  time  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Great  cleanliness  and 
extreme  vigilance  are  the  best  means  of  keeping  clear  of  these 
noxious  insects. 

6.  The  HOMOP'TER^E,  in  which  the  elytra,  in  place  of  being 
horizontal  as  in  the  preceding,  are  inclined  and  similar  to  wings, 
live  exclusively  on  the  juices  of  plants,  and  are  generally  remark- 
able for  the  length  of  the  beak  which  arises  from  the  inferior  and 
posterior  part  of  the  head. 

7.  The  locvst—  Cicada — 
(Jig.  37) —  belongs  to  this 
family.  The  males  make  a 
monotonous  noisy  kind  of 
music,  which  is  produced  by 
an  organ  situated  at  each  side 
of  the  base  of  the  abdomen. 
They  live  on  trees  and  suck 
their  sap ;  one  species  is  in 
Fig.  37. — LOCUST.  the  habit  of  stinging  a  species 

of  the  ash,  causing  an  exuda- 
tion of  a  honey-like'  juice,  which,  growing  thick  by  evaporation 
in  the  air,  constitutes  manna.  The  elytra  are  almost  always 
transparent  and  veined.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  the 
pith  of  dead  twigs.  The  young  larva?  leave  their  asylum  to 
penetrate  the  earth,  where  they  grow  and  experience  their  meta- 
morphosis. 

5.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Cimex  ? 

6.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  section  Homop'tera  ? 

7.  What  are  the  habits  of  locusts  ?     How  is  manna  produced  ?    Where 
do  locusts  deposit  their  eggs  ? 


PLANT-LICE.— COCHINEAL,  &c. 


43 


Fig.  38.— APHIS. 


8.  The  plant-lice— Aphis— (Jig.  38)— are 
very  small   homop'terans ;    they  have   a   soft 
body,  and  are  found  in  myriads  in  our  gardens; 
they  live  in  companies  on  trees,  the  rose,  ivy, 
oak,  apple,  &c,,  arid  suck  the  sap  by  aid  of 
their  trunk. 

9.  The  cochineal  insect  (Coccus)  is  very 

similar  to  plant-lice.     The  males  (fig- 

39)  have  wings,  but  the  females  (fig* 

40)  have  none.     Most  of  these  insects 
at   a   particular    season   of   the   year 
attach    themselves   to    the    plants    on 
which  they  feed ;  the  males  to  experi- 
ence   their    metamorphosis,    and    the 
females  to  pass  their  lives.     The  sub- 
stance called  cochineal,  so  much  used 
in  dyeing,  is  the  dried  bodies  of  certain 
insects   of    this    genus.      The    insects 

which  furnish  the  most  beautiful  scarlet  live  on  a 
kind  of  cactus  called  nopal  or  opuntia,  which  is  cul- 
tivated in  Mexico  and  other  parts  of  South  America, 
solely  on  account  of  these  animals.     They  are  native  of  America, 
and  have  been  found  in  South  Carolina. 


Fig.  40. 

COCHINEAL. 


Fig.    39. 
COCHINEAL. 


ORDER  OF  NEUROP'TERA. 

10.  The  Neurop'terse  (from    the  Greek,  neuron,   nerve,   and 
pteron,  wing)  are  distinguished  from  other  insects  by  their  wings, 
all  four  of  which  are  membranous,    transparent  and  reticulated 
(that  is,  formed  in  very  fine  net-work),  and  by  the  organization 
of  the  mouth,  which  is  armed  with  mandibles  and  jaws  adapted  to 
mastication  (fig.  41). 

11.  The  general  form  of  these  insects  is  elongated,  and  their 
teguments  almost  always  soft.     Most  of  them  are  carnivorous. 
The  Iarva9  always  have  six   legs  terminated   by  hooks ;   their 
metamorphosis  is  various,  but  generally  incomplete. 

The  most  interesting  insects  of  this  order  are  the  Dragon-flies, 
Ephe'merce,  and  Termites. 

8.  What  are  plant-lice  ? 

9.  What  is  cochineal  dye  ?     How  does  the  male  differ  from  the  female 
cochineal  insect  ? 

10.  How  is  the  order  of  Neurop'tera  distinguished? 

11.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Neurop' terse  ? 


44 


DRAGON-FLIES.— EPHEMERAE. 


Fig.  41. DRAGON-FLY. 


Fig.  42. 

LARVA  OF  DRAGON-FLY. 


12.  The  Dragon-files — (figAl) — Libel' Ma  — are  remarkable 
for  their  elongated  form,  their  varied  colours,  their  large,  beautiful, 
gauze-like  wings,  and  their  rapidity  of  flight.  Their  larvae  and 
nymphcs  (fig.  42)  live  in  the  water  until  the  period  of  their  last 
transformation.  In  the  two  first  states  they  resemble  the  perfect 
insect,  except  that  they  have  no  wings,  and  the  head,  yet  unpro- 
vided with  simple  eyes,  has  a  mark  in  front  covering  the  mandi- 
bles, which  is  furnished  with  movable  pincers,  by  means  of 
which  the  animal  seizes  its  prey.  At  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  abdomen  (fig.  42)  we  remark  lamellar  appendages  which  the 
larva  constantly  expands,  while  at  the  same  moment  it  dilates  the 
rectum  to  cause  water  to  enter  it ;  then  it  forcibly  expels  the 
water  mingled  with  bubbles  of  air,  both  for  the  purpose  of  loco- 
motion and  breathing. 


Fig.  43. EPHEMERA. 

13.  The  Ephemera  (fig.  43)  have  a  very  soft  body  terminated 
by  two  or  three  long  setse  or  filaments.  As  their  name  indicates, 
these  insects  live  but  a  very  short  time ;  they  usually  appear  in 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  Dragon-flies  ?     How  do  their  larvae  differ 
from  the  perfect  insect  ? 

13.  What  are  the  characters  of  Ephemerae  ?     What   are  their  habits? 
How  does  the  larva  differ  from  the  perfect  insect  ? 


TERMITES.  45 


numerous  swarms  along  the  banks  of  rivers,  towards  sunset,  on 
bright  days  in  the  warm  season.  They  assemble  in  the  air  and 
then  alight  on  neighbouring  plants;  soon  afterwards  the  female 
lays  her  eggs  in  the  water  and  dies.  These  insects  sometimes 
fall  upon  the  ground  in  such  great  numbers  that  they  are  gathered 
up  in  cart-loads  for  manuring  the  earth.  But  notwithstanding 
they  live  in  the  perfect  state  only  a  few  hours,  they  undergo 
transformation  and  clothe  themselves  in  a  new  skin.  In  the  state 
of  larvae  or  nymphre,  on  the  contrary,  they  live  two  or  three 
years  and  remain  in  the  water.  The  larva  resembles  the  perfect 
insect ;  but  the  mouth  has  two  projections  in  form  of  horns,  and 
the  abdomen  has  on  each  side  a  row  of  plates  or  leaflets,  serving 
for  respiration  and  swimming.  The  pupa  or  nympha  does  not 
differ  from  the  larva  except  in  the  presence  of  sheaths  enclosing 
the  wings.  At  the  moment  these  organs  are  to  be  developed,  the 
insect  leaves  the  water ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  exception  to  the 
general  rule,  that  after  having  undergone  this  metamorphosis,  it 
again  changes  its  skin  before  it  becomes  an  adult. 

14.  The  Ter' mites  are  only  found  in  countries  situated  near  the 
tropics,  and  are  known  under  the  common  name  of  white  ants. 
These  insects  live  in  very  numerous  societies,  composed  of  males, 
females,  larvae,  nymphs,  and  neuters  or  adults;  the  last  are 
however  incomplete,  wanting  wings;  they  are  called  soldiers. 
They  keep  under  ground  or  in  the  interior  of  trees,  joists,  &c., 
and  in  them  dig  very  extensive  and  numerous  galleries,  all  of 
which  communicate  with  a  central  place  where  they  dwell ;  these 
habitations  are  always  covered,  and  when  circumstances  compel 
the  larva?  to  leave  it,  they  form  beyond,  from  the  materials  they 
gnaw,  tubes  or  covered  ways  which  hide  them  from  view.  The 
soldiers,  which  have  a  larger  head,  and  mandibles  more  apparent 
than  the  others,  are  charged  with  the  defence  of  the  common 
dwelling,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  they  have  obtained  the  name 
of  soldiers ;  they  keep  near  the  external  surface  of  the  habita- 
tion, and  as  soon  as  a  breach  is  made,  they  rush  out  to  fight  their 
enemies. ,  The  larva,  which  are  called  working  termites,  are 
much  more  numerous  than  the  soldiers;  they  perform  all  the 
labour  necessary  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  their  dwell- 
ings ;  they  cause  terrible  destruction  by  mining,  as  it  were,  through 
trees  and  the  frames  of  houses.  Having  attained  the  perfect 
state,  the  termites  quit  their  nest  towards  evening  and  rise  in  the 
air;  but  on  the  rising  of  the  sun  their  wings  dry  and  they  fall, 
the  most  of  them  becoming  a  prey  to  lizards,  birds,  &c. ;  but  we 
are  assured  that,  at  this  period,  the  larvae  make  prisoners  of  the 
females  and  keep  them  in  a  particular  cell  in  the  centre  of  the 

14.  What  are  Ter'mites  ?    What  are  their  habits  ? 


46  LEPIDOPTER^E. 


habitation,  for  the  purpose  of  augmenting  the  colony  by  the  addi- 
tion of  their  offspring.  At  first  a  certain  number  of  larvae  stand 
guard  at  the  entrance  of  this  cell ;  but  the  abdomen  of  the  cap- 
tive female  acquires  so  great  a  volume  that  she  cannot  pass  the 
entrance  of  the  cell,  which  the  larvae  are  even  obliged  to  enlarge. 
The  same  larvae  are  careful  to  lodge  in  a  particular  cell  the  eggs 
she  lays  and  provide  food  for  them.  There  is  a  species  of  ter- 
mites, caHed  lucifugus,  which  is  multiplied  to  such  a  degree  in 
the.workshops  and  store-houses,  in  the  dock-yard  at  Rochefort, 
as  to  cause  serious  damage. 

"When  they  find  their  way,"  says  Kirby,  "into  houses  or  warehouses, 
nothing  less  hard  than  metal  or  glass  escapes  their  ravages.  Their  favourite 
food,  however,  is  wood,  and  so  infinite  is  the  multitude  of  assailants,  and 
such  the  excellence  of  their  tools,  that  all  the  timber-work  of  a  spacious 
apartment  is  often  destroyed  by  them  in  a  night.  Outwardly  every  thing 
appears  as  if  untouched;  for  these  wary  depredators — and  this  is  what  con- 
stitutes the  greatest  singularity  in  their  history — carry  on  all  their  opera- 
tions by  sap  or  mine,  destroying  first  the  inside  of  solid  substances,  and 
scarcely  ever  attacking  the  outside,  until  first  they  have  concealed  it  and 
their  operations  with  a  coat  of  clay." 

It  is  related  that  "  an  engineer  having  returned  from  surveying  the 
country,  left  his  trunk  on  a  table :  the  next  morning  he  found  not  only  all 
his  clothes  destroyed  by  the  white  ants. or  cutters,  but  his  papers  also,  and 
the  latter  in  such  a  manner,  that  there  was  not  a.  bit  left  of  an  inch  square. 
The  black-lead  of  his  pencils  was  consumed  ;  the  clothes  were  not  entirely 
cut  to  pieces  and  carried  away,  but  appeared  as  if  moth-eaten,  there  being 
scarcely  a  piece  as  large  as  a  shilling  free  from  small  holes.  '  One  night,' 
says  Kemper,  in  his  history  of  Japan,  '  in  a  few  hours,  they  pierced  one 
foot  of  the  table,  and  having  in  that  manner  ascended,  carried  their  arch 
across  it,  and  then  down,  through  the  middle  of  the  other  foot,  into  the  floor, 
as  good  luck  would  have  it,  without  doing  any  damage  to  the  papers  left 
there.'  " — History  of  Insects  in  the  Family  Library. 

ORDER  OF  LEPIDOP'TERA. 

15.  The  Lepidop' terse  (from   the   Greek,  lepis,  a  scale,  and 
pteron,  wing)  or  butterflies   are   recognised   by  the   scaly  dust, 
similar  to  coloured  flour,  which  covers  their  four  membranous 
wings,  and  by  their  mouth,  which  is  in  form  of  a  tube  spirally 
rolled  up  (Jig.  11). 

16.  These  insects  experience  complete  metamorphosis;  their 
larva?,  which  are  known  under  the  name  of  caterpillars  (Jigs.  17 
and  18),  have  six  scaly  legs  corresponding  to  those  of  the  perfect 
insert,  and  four  or  six  membranous  feet  which  subsequently  dis- 
appear; in  general  the  body  is  almost  cylindrical,  soft,  and  dif- 
ferently coloured.     Most  of  them  feed  on  leaves  or  other  parts 

15.  How  is  the  order  of  Lepidop'tera  recognised  1 

16.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  larvae  of  Lepidop'terae  1    What  is  a 
ehrysalid  1 


DIURNAL  LEPIDOPTERJ3.— BUTTERFLIES.  47 

of  vegetables ;  but  there  are  some  that  eat  woollen  stuffs,  peltries, 
&c.  Generally  these  animals  change  the  skin  four  times ;  and 
when  they  are  about  being  transformed  into  the  nympha  or  pupa 
state,  they  enclose  themselves  in  a  shell  or  cocoon,  constructed 
of  a  silky  material,  secreted  in  particular  organs,  and 
forced  out  through  a  kind  of  lip.  In  the  nympha 
state,  the  Lepidop'teree  resemble  a  mummy,  and  are 
called  clirysalids  (fig.  44)  ;  they  are  swathed,  and 
when  they  have  undergone  the  changes  they  are  des- 
tined to  experience,  they  escape  from  their  case 
through  a  slit  they  make  on  the  back  of  the  corselet. 
In  the  perfect  state,  these  animals  feed  exclusively  on  CHKVSALID. 
the  honey  of  flowers. 

17.  The    order  of  Lepidop'tera  is.  divided    into   three    great 
families  ;  namely,  Diurnal  Lepidop'terte,  Crepuscular  Lepidop  - 
tercv,  and  Nocturnal  Lepidop'tera. 

18.  The    DIURNAL    LEFIDOF'TERJG    are    recognised   by  their 
wings,  which  are  vertical  when  in  repose  (fig.  45),  while  in  the 
other  two  families  they  are  horizontal  or  inclined.     Their  antennoe 
are  generally  terminated  by  a  small  rounded  club-like  mass  ;  some- 
times, however,  they  are  tapering  at  the  extremity,  and  curved 


Fig.  45. PAPILIO    PHILENOR. 


17.  How  is  the  order  of  Lepidop'tera  divided? 

18.  How  are  the  Diurnal  Lepidop'tera-  distinguished?  What  are  their  habits? 


48  PAPILIO  PHILENOR.— VANESSA. 

so  as  to  form  a  hook.  These  butterflies,  as  their  name  indicates, 
fly  and  seek  their  food  only  during  the  day ;  their  colours  are 
generally  bright  and  agreeably  variegated.  Their  caterpillars 
always  have  six  legs,  and  the  chrysalid  is  seldom  enclosed  in  a 
cocoon,  but  is  suspended  by  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body. 
In  this  family  are  the  butter/ties,  proper  ly  so  called,Vanessa,&z,c. 

19.  As  an  example  of  the  first  we  will  mention  the  Papilio 
philenor  (Jig.  45),  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  butterflies. 
It  is  characterized  by  a  black  head,  thorax  and  legs  ;  breast  dotted 
with  yellow ;  the  superior  wings  are  dark  green,  with  white  spots 
on  the  margin  ;  the  inferior  wings  highly  polished  green,  with 
spots  of  pearl-white  and  fulvo'us,  the  latter  surrounded  by  a  black 
ring.     The  caterpillars  of  this  genus  are  destitute  of  spines  or 
hairs;  but  when  disturbed  they  suddenly  project  from  the  superior 
part  of  the  neck  a  soft  bifid  or  forked  appendage,  which  diffuses 
a  strong  odour.     This  singular  organ,  although  somewhat  for- 
midable in  appearance,  is  yet  perfectly  harmless  ;  it  may,  however, 
serve  the  purpose  of  repelling  the  enemies  of  the  larva,  rather, 
perhaps,  by  the  odour  it  emits,  than  by  its  menacing  aspect. 

20.  The  genus  Vanessa  comprises  several  species.     Their  ca- 
terpillars are  armed  with  numerous  spines  (fg.  46). 


Fig.  46. — VANESSA. 

21.  The  CREPUSCULAR  LEPIUOP'TEK.E  only  fly  in  morning  or 
evening  twilight.  When  in  repose,  their  wings  are  horizontal  or 
inclined,  a  position  which  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  in  this 
family  the  inferior  wings  have  a  stiff  bristle  which  serves  to  sup- 
port the  superior.  The  antennoe  are  elongated  clubs,  and  com- 
monly prismatic  or  spindle-shaped  ;  sometimes  they  are  pectinate  j 
their  caterpillars  always  have  six  legs.  _ 

19.  How  is  the  Papilio  philenor  characterized  ? 

20.  How  arc  the  caterpillars  of  the  genus  Vanessa  characterized  ?  ^ 

21.  Why  are  the  wings  of  Crepuscular  Lepidop' terse,  when  in  repose,  non- 
tontal  or  inclined "' 


SPHINX.— BOMB  YX. 


49 


22.  The  type  of  this  family  is  the  genus  Sphinx,  so  called,  because 
sometimes  the  attitude  of  its  caterpillar  resembles  that  of  the  sphinx 
of  fable ;  they  fly  with  great  rapidity  and  hover  above  flowers. 

23.  The  largest  species  in  France  is  the  Sphinx  atropos,  so 
named,  in  consequence  of  a  spot  on  the  back  resembling  some- 
what a  death's  head.     Its  caterpillar  is  yellow  with  blue  stripes 
on  the  side ;  it  lives  on  the  potatoe-vine,  jasmin,  &c.,  and  changes 
to  a  nymph,  about  the  end  of  August ;  the  perfect  insect  appears 
in  September. 

24.  The  NOCTURNAL  LEPIDOP'TER^E  always  have  horizontal 
or  inclined  wings  when  in  repose ;  the  superior  wings  are  almost 
always  retained  against  the  inferior  (fig-  47) ;  in  this  respect  they 
resemble  the  crepuscular  lepidop'terae,  but  are  distinguished  from 
them  by  their  antennae,  which  diminish  in  size  from  the  base  to 
the  point,  or  in  other  words,  they  are  seta'ceous.     These  lepidop'- 
terae, which  are  sometimes  called  phaloense,  ordinarily  fly  only  at 
night  or  in  the  evening  after  sunset ;  in  some  species  the  females 
are  without  wings,  or  have  them  very  small.   %  Their  chrysalids 
are  almost  always  round  and  lodged  in  a  cocoon. 

This  family  is  very  numerous,  and  is  divided  into  several  tribes  ; 
the  most  interesting  is  that  of  the  Bom'byces,  which  have  inclined 
wings,  forming  a  triangle  with  the  body. 

25.  The  mulberry  bombyx 
— Bombyx  mori — (fig'  47) — 
of  all   insects  is  the  most  in- 
teresting, because  its  caterpil- 
lar, known  under  the  name  of 
silk-worm,  furnishes   us  with 
silk.     In  the  perfect  state,  this 
butterfly  is  whitish,  with  two 
or   three   darkish    transverse 
stripes,  and  a  cross-like  spot 

on  the  superior  wings.     Its  caterpillar  (fig.  48)  has  a  smooth 

body,  and  at  birth  scarcely 

exceeds    a  line   in   length ; 

but  attains  in  time  to  even 

more  than  three  inches  long. 

In  this  form  the  silk-worm 


Fig.  47. — BOMBYX. 


lives  about  thirty-four  days, 
andduringthis  timechanges 


Fig.  48. — SILK-WORM. 


22.  What  is  a  Sphinx  ? 

23.  How  is  the  caterpillar  of  the  Sphinx  atropos  characterized  ? 

24.  How  are  the  Nocturnal  Lepidop'terze  distinguished  ?     What  are  their 
habits  ? 

25.  What  are   silk-worms  ?     What  are   the   characters  of  the  bombyx 
mori?     What  are  the   habits  of  its   larva?     What  is  the  colour  of  its 
cocoon  ? 


50  SILK-WORMS. 


its  skin  four  times ;  it  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry ;  at 
the  time  of  moulting  it  becomes  torpid  and  does  not  eat ;  but  after 
changing  its  skin,  its  appetite  is  doubled.  When  it  is  ready  to 
change  into  a  chrysalis,  it  becomes  flaccid  and  soft,  and  seeks  a 
proper  place  to  construct  its  cocoon,  in  which  it  encloses  itself; 
the  first  day  is  occupied  in  attaching,  in  an  irregular  manner, 
threads  of  silk  to  neighbouring  bodies  to  support  it ;  the  second 
day  it  begins  to  multiply  these  threads  so  as  to  envelope  itself; 
and  on  the  third  day  it  is  entirely  concealed  in  its  cocoon.  This 
nest  is  formed  of  a  single  filament  of  silk  wrapped  around  the 
animal,  and  its  turns  glued  together  by  a  kind  of  gum.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  length  of  this  filament  in  an  ordinary  cocoon 
is  nine  hundred  feet.  The  form  of  the  cocoon  is  oval,  and  its 
colour  either  yellow  or  white. 

26.  The  bombyx  remains  in  the  chrysalis  state,  in  the  interior 
of  its  cocoon,  about  twenty  days ;  and  when  it  has  finished  its 
metamorphosis,  it  disgorges  upon  a  point  of  its  parietes  a  par- 
ticular liquid,  which  softens  it  and  enables  the  animal  to  make  a 
round  hole  through  which  it  escapes. 

27.  This  precious  caterpillar  appears  to  be  originally  from  the 
northern  part  of  China,  and,  about  the  time  of  Justinian,  was 
imported  into  Europe  by  the  Greek  missionaries;  but  it  was  not 
until  the  period  of  the  Crusades  that  its  culture  passed  from  Greece 
into  Italy  and  Sicily.     Some  gentlemen  who  accompanied  Charles 
VIII.  into  Italy  during  the  war  of  1494  introduced  these  insects 
into  the  south  of  France,  as  well  as  the  mulberry,  a  tree  without 
which  silk-worms  cannot  be  raised  ;  but  for  a  long  time  it  attracted 
very  little  attention.     In  the  present  day,  however,  this  branch 
of  agricultural  industry  forms  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  wealth 
of  southern  France;  and  is  yearly  becoming  of  more  and  more 
importance  in  the  United  States. 

28.  To  obtain  the  silk  produced  by  these  animals,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  kill  them  before  they  pierce  the  cocoon,  and  then  wind  or 
reel  off  the  thread  or  filament  of  which  it  is  composed ;  to  unglue 
it,  the  cocoons  are  soaked  in  warm  water ;  then  the  filaments  of 
three  or  four  are  united  into  one  thread.     That  part  of  the  cocoon 
which  cannot  be  reeled  in  this  manner  is  carded,  and  constitutes 
floss-silk. 

29.  The  mulberry  bombyx  is  not  the  only  species  of  this  genus 
which  yields  silk  that  can  be  usefully  employed ;  the  inhabitants 
of  Madagascar  make  use  of  a  species,  the  caterpillars  of  which  live 

26.  How  does  the  bombyx  escape  from  its  cocoon? 

27.  What  is  the  history  of  the  silk-worm  ? 

28.  How  is  the  silk  obtained  ?     What  is  floss-silk  ? 

29.  Is  there  any  other  species  of  Bombyx  which  produces  silk? 


PROCESSIONNEA.— PTEROPHORA. 


51 


in  numerous  bands,  and  form  a  common  nest,  sometimes  three 
feet  high,  containing  about  five  hundred  cocoons. 

30.  A  species  of  bombyx  called  processionne 'a,  has  analogous 
habits,  but  instead  of  being  useful,  is  very  destructive ;  the  body 
of    the  caterpillars  is  ash-coloured,  with  a  black  back    spotted 
yellow  ;  they  live  in  society  on  the  oak,  and  while  young,  spin  a 
web  or  tent  in  common,  under  which  they  are  all  sheltered ;  they 
frequently  change  their  domicil,  and  generally  they  leave  their 
retreat  in  the  evening,  following  a  regular  order ;  one  marches 
ahead,  then  follows  two,  then  three,  and  so  on,  increasing  each 
rank  by  one;  this  description  of  procession  has  given  them  their 
specific  name. 

31.  The  Tinea  or  Moths,  whose  caterpillars  frequently  feed  on 
cloth  and  peltry,  are  also  nocturnal  lepidop'terae.     The  clothes- 
moth,  fur-moth,   grease-moth,  grain-moth,   and    various   other 
destructive  moths  are  mostly  very  small  insects;  the  largest  of 
them,  when   arrived  at  maturity,  expanding  their  wings   about 
eight-tenths  of  an  inch.     The   Tinea  sarcitetla   or   pack-moth, 
which  is  very  destructive  to  woollen,  is  silver-gray,  and  has  a 
white  dot  on  each  side  of  the  thorax.     Its  caterpillar  lives  on 
cloth  and  other  woollens,  weaving  with  their  detached  particles 
mixed  with  silk  a  portable  tube ;  it  lengthens  it  one  end  in  pro- 
portion as  it  grows,  and  slits  it  to  increase  its  diameter  by  adding 
another  piece.     From  this  circumstance  it  obtains  the   specific 
name,  sarcitella,  which  is  formed  from  the  Latin,  sarcio,  I  patch. 

32.  Belonging   to   the 
family  of  nocturnal    iepi- 
dop'tera   is    the   tribe   of 
FISSIPENNJE  :     this     tribe 
is  distinguished    from    all 
other  lepidop' terse  by  the 
singular   structure  of  the 
wings,  which,  in   a   state 
of    repose,    are     straight 
and  elongated.     The  four 
wings,  or  two  of  them  at 
least,  are  slit  through  their 

whole  length  into  branches,  which  are  barbed  on  the  sides,  bear- 
ing some  resemblance  to  an  outspread  feather  fan.  All  these 
anomalous  insects  are  included  in  a  single  genus,  named  PTERO'- 
PHORA  (Jig.  49). 

30.  What  are  the  habit?  of  the  Bombyx  processionne's.  1 

31.  What  are  Tinese  1 

32.  What  are  Fissipeanae  1 


Fig,    49. PTERO'PHORA. 


52  HYMENOPTERA. 


LESSON  IV. 

ORDER  OF  HYMENOP'TERA. — Organization — Ichneumon  Fly — 

G  alls —  Wasps — Horn  ets — A  n  ts — Bees . 
ORDER  OF  RHIPIP'TERA. 

ORDER  OF  DIP'TERA. — Mosquitoes — Flies — CEstrus. 
CLASS  OF  MYRIA'PODA. — Scolopendra. 

ORDER  OF  HYMENOP'TERA. 

1.  Insects  of  the  order  of  Hymenop'tera    (from   the  Greek, 
*u?nen,  a  membrane,  and  pteron,  wing)  have,  like  the  Neurop'terse, 
four  membranous,  naked  wings,  that   is,  they  are  without  the 
coloured  dust-like  scales  which  cover  those  of  the  Lepidop' terse ; 
the  mouth  is  composed  of  mandibles,  which  in  general  are  very 
different  in  form  from  those  of  triturating  insects  (tritores) ;  but 
the  maxillse  andjigula  are  elongated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  con- 
stitute a   tube  adapted  exclusively  to  suction ;  their  wings  are 
veined,  instead  of  being  reticulated  as  in  the  Neurop'terse,  and 
the  superior  are  always  larger  than  the  inferior.     The  tegumen- 
tary  envelope  of  these  insects  is   not  crustaceous ;  besides  the 
compound  eyes,  they  always    have,  three   small   simple   eyes. 
When  in  repose  the  wings  are  placed  horizontally  over  the  body. 
The  tarsi  are  composed  of  five  complete  articulations ;  and  the 
abdomen  is  generally  suspended  from  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  thorax,  by  a  straight  peduncle;  and  in  the  females  this  part 
of  the  body  is  terminated  by  an  ovipositor  or  sting. 

2.  The  metamorphosis  of  these  insects  is  complete ;  most  of 
the  larvse  are  apodous,  that  is,  without  feet ;  but  some  are  pro- 
vided with  six  or  a  greater  number  of  legs. 

3.  In  the  perfect  state,  almost  all  the  Hymenop'terse  live  on 
flowers,  and  many  of  them  form  numerous  societies,  the  labours 
of  which  are  performed  in  common.     In  the  larva  state,  some 
feed  on  dead  insects,  others  on  vegetable  substances,  and  when 
these    animals    are  unprovided  with  legs,  and  consequently  in- 
capable of  seeking  food,  the  mother  places  them,  sometimes  in 
the  bodies  of  animals   at  whose  cost  they  are  destined  to  live, 
sometimes  in  nests,  and  then  she  or  others  of  the  society  regularly 
bring  them  food. 

1.  What  are  the  characters  of  Hymenop'terans  ? 

2.  What  description  of  metamorphosis  do  they  undergo  ? 

3.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Hymenop'terae  ? 


ICHNEUMON  fUES,— WASPS.  53 

4.  Some,  designated  by  the  common  name  of  TEREBRAN'TIA 
(from  the  Latin,  terebro,  I  bore),  have,  in  the  female,  the  abdomen 
terminated  by  a  simple  borer,  most  generally  in  form  of  a  saw, 
which  they  use  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  suitable  places.     Of  this 
number  are  the  Ichneumon  Jlies,  insects  which  render  essential 
service  to  agriculture  by  destroying  a  great  many  caterpillars ; 
the  Cynips,  which  have  a  small  head,  and  a  large,  raised  up 
corselet,  which  gives  them  the  appearance  of  being  hump-backed. 
The  females  make  excavations  in  trees  for  depositing  their  eggs, 
and  the  juices  effused  at  the  wounded  spot  often  produce  excres- 
cences named  galls.     The  gall-nut,  of  which  considerable  use  is 
made  in  dyeing  black,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  ink,  is  developed 
in  this  manner  on  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  oak  which  grows  in 
Asia  Minor. 

5.  Other  hymenop'terse  have  the  abdomen  attached    to   the 
thorax  by  a  straight  peduncle,  and  in  place  of  the  ovipositor  there 
exists  in  most  of  the  females  and  most  neuters,  a  retractile  sting. 
They  form  a  group  of  ACU'LEATES  (from  the  Latin,  aculeus,  a 
prickle  or  sting).     The  most  interesting  insects  of  this  division 
are  the  wasps,  ants,  and  bees. 

6.  Wasps — Vespa — are  so  generally  known  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  describe  their  form  ;  but  their  habits  are  worthy  of  atten- 
tion.     These    insects,  like   some   other  hymenop'terse,  live   in 
society.     Only  the  females  found  new  colonies ;    in  the  spring 
they  lay  their  eggs,  from  which  are  derived  individuals  called 
workers,  who  assist  their  common  mother  to  enlarge  the  nest  and 
raise  the  young  born  afterwards.     To  construct  their  nest  or 
vespiary,  these  insects  by  aid  of  their  mandibles  detach  pieces  of 
bark  or  old  wood,  which  they  reduce  to  a  sort  of  paper-like  paste , 
of  this  they  form  the  combs  or  nests,  which  are  generally  hori- 
zontal, suspended  by  pedicles,  and  present  at  the  lower  edge  series 
of  hexagonal  cells,  serving  for  the  lodgment  of  the  larvae  and 
pupse.     These  cells  are  ranged  parallel  to  each  other,  at  regular 
distances,  and  are  joined  together  at  intervals  by  little  columns 
which  support  them  (Jig,  50) ;  the  whole  is  built,  sometimes  in 
the  open  air,  sometimes  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  and  some  are 
naked  or  enclosed  in  a  common  envelope,  according  to  the  species 
(Jig.  50).     The   cells,  which  vary  in   number,  are   sometimes 
covered  and  communicate  externally  by  a  common  aperture.     It 
is  only  in  the  beginning  of  autumn  that  male  wasps  are  found  in 
the  vespiary  ;  the  young  females  make  their  appearance  about 
the  same  time.     About  the  month  of  November  the  young  wasps 
that  have  not  yet  completed  their  last  metamorphosis,  are  put  to 

4.  What  are  gall-nuts  ? 

5.  What  insects  are  comprised  in  the  group  of  Aculeates  ? 

6.  What  are  the  habits  of  wasps  ? 

5* 


54 


HABITS  OF  WASPS. 


Fig.  50. — VESPIARY  OR  WASP'S  NEST. 

death  and  thrown  out  of  the  cells  by  the  neuters,  who,  as  well 
as  the  males,  perish  when  cold  weather  arrives ;  so  that  the  pre- 
servation of  the  species  is  confided  exclusively  to  the  few  females 
who  resist  the  inclemency,  of  winter  and  survive  till  spring. 

"  Cruel  and  ferocious  as  these  insects  may  appear,  still  their  affection  for 
their  habitation  and  young  is  very  striking.  Whatever  injury  may  be  done 
to  the  nest,  if  it  should  be  even  broken  to  pieces,  they  will  linger  about  the 
cherished  spot,  or  quit  it  only  to  follow  the  combs  wherever  they  may  be 
transferred.  '  Those,'  says  Reaumur,  '  which  were  absent  when  I  removed 
the  nest,  finding,  on  their  return,  neither  companions  nor  home,  knew  not 
where  to  go,  and  for  days  together  hovered  around  the  hole  before  they 
determined  to  abandon  the  spot.'  The  material  from  which  the  nest  is  con- 
structed is  vegetable  fibre.  The  wasp  will  not  use  saw-dust ;  but,  knowing 
that  a  filamentous  material,  like  linen  rags,  is  necessary  for  the  fabrication, 
of  its  paper,  it  amasses  pieces  of  some  substance  possessing  this  quality. 
As  the  first  step  in  the  process  of  paper-making  is  to  soak  the  vegetable 
fibre  in  water,  so  the  wasp  takes  especial  care  to  select  the  filaments  which 
it  intends  to  use  from  wet  wood  which  has  rotted  hi  the  rain.  These  are 
worked  up  with  a  glutinous  secretion,  and  thus  the  material  is  prepared. 
When  the  wasp  can  get  its  paper  ready  made,  it  makes  no  scruple  to  appro- 
priate  it.  Reaumur,  being  once  disturbed  by  a  noise  in  his  study,  found 
that  it  arose  from  the  gnawing  of  a  piece  of  paper  which  these  insects  had 


ANTS.  55 


attacked.  A  few  only  of  the  community  are  architects  ;  the  lest  having 
other  appropriate  employments.  The  females  (for  there  are  as  many  as 
three  hundred),  unlike  the  queen  bee,  do  not  pass  their  lives  in  receiving  the 
homage  of  their  subjects,  but  perform  every  species  of  labour.  The 
neuters,  however,  as  among  bees,  are  the  true  workers.  They  build  the 
nest  and  forage  for  food  for  the  males,  females,  and  the  young.  The  worms 
are  not  locked  up  in  a  cell  surrounded  by  food,  but  require  to  be  fed  like 
the  young  of  birds.  'I  saw,'  says  Reaumur,  'a  female  wasp,  which  had 
entered  the  vespiary  with  the  belly  of  an  insect ;  this  she  contrived  by 
degrees  to  swallow,  after  which  she  ran  to  various  cells,  and  disgorging  that 
which  she  had  eaten,  distributed  it  among  the  brood  of  worms.'  Hence  it 
appears  that  it  not  only  procured  the  food,  but  prepared  it  by  a  partial 
digestion.  The  wasp  is  particularly  fond  of  the  belly  of  the  bee ;  it  is  a 
choice  bit  which  it  eagerly  seeks.  It  will  watch  for  hours  at  the  door  of  a 
bee-hive,  pounce  upon  some  unfortunate  bee  which  is  about  to  enter,  and 
tumbling  it  to  the  ground,  in  a  trice  separate,  with  its  two  serrated  teeth, 
the  tender  abdomen,  containing  the  soft  intestines  and  the  honey-bag,  from 
the  dry  and  hard  chest  of  the  insect ;  having  secured  its  prey,  it  hurries 
away  to  its  habitation.  The  large  blue  bottle-fly  is  another  delicate  morsel 
greatly  coveted  by  the  wasp." — Family  Library. 

The  hornet  is  the  largest  of  the  wasp  tribe.     It  is  a  terrible  enemy  of  the 
hive  bee ;  its  sting  is  very  dangerous  even  to  man. 

7.  The  ants — Formica — also  present  three  kinds  of  individuals, 
males,  females,  and  workers ;   they  live  in   societies   composed 
chiefly  of  workers  who  are  unprovided  with  wings ;  so  soon  as 
the  males  and  females  have  acquired  wings  they  leave  the  habita- 
tion ;  the  males  soon  after  die,  and  the  females  that  are  to  become 
motjiers  quickly  lose  their  wings ;  some   go  off  to  found    new 
colonies,  others    are    held    prisoners   by  the  neuters  in  the  old 
habitation,  and  there  lay  their  eggs.     The  manner  of  construct- 
ing these  dwellings,  and  in  fact  every  thing  relating  to  the  habits 
of  ants,  is  extremely  curious.     In  general  the  larvae  dig  in  the 
earth  a  multitude  of  galleries,  chambers  arranged  in  stories,  and, 
carrying  out  the  dirt,  often  raise  up  above  the  nest  a  little  hill, 
in  the  interior  of  which  these  indefatigable  workmen  form  new 
stories  similar  to  those  below ;  sometimes  they  construct  from  this 
dirt,  galleries  which  they  carry  up  along  the  stems  of  shrubs  on 
which  these  insects  go  in  pursuit  of  food,  and  which  shelter  them  in 
their  daily  journeys.     Other  ants  construct  their  nests  in  trees  that 
have  been  already  attacked  by  other  insects  and  softened  by  decay. 
The  larva?  also  receive  assiduous  attention  from  the  workers  ; 
each  one  is  supplied  by  the  latter  with  the  juices  proper  for  it, 
and,  when  the  weather  is  fine,  we  observe  these  active  nurses 
carry  the  young  out  of  the  nest  to  expose  them  to  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  defend  them  from  their  enemies,  transport  them  back  again 
to  the  nest  on  the  approach  of  evening,  and  keep  them  clean. 

8.  Bees  (fig.  51) — Apis — and  some  other  Hymenop'teraB  pre 

7.  What  are  the  habits  of  ants  ? 

8.  What  are  the  characters  of  bees  ? 


56 


BEES. 


Fig.  51.— HONEY-BEE. 


sent  a  peculiar  conformation  of  the 
hind  legs,  which  is  characteristic  of 
them  ;  the  first  articulation  of  the  tarsus 
of  these  legs  is  very  large,  compressed 
in  form  of  a  palette  and  armed  with  a 
silky  brush  ;  on  the  external  side  of 
the  leg  or  tibia  there  is  also  a  depres- 
sion bordered  by  hairs,  named  a  basket; 
the  insect  makes  use  of  these  organs 
for  collecting  the  pollen  of  flowers.  Honey-bees  are  distinguished 
from  other  social  bees  by  the  absence  of  spines  on  the  extremity 
of  the  hind  legs. 

9.  Of  all  insects  that  live  in  society  these  are  the  most  interest- 
ing to  us ;  for  by  their  admirable  industry  we  are  furnished  with 
honey  and  wax.     These  little  animals  establish  their  dwellings  in 
some  cavity,  such  as  holes  in  trees,  or  in  a  kind  of  cage  which 

farmers  prepare  for  them,  called  a  hive. 
The  inhabitants  of  each  hive  or  colony 
formed  by  bees  are  for  the  most  part  work- 
ers or  drones  ;  during  a  part  of  the  year 
we  also  find  a  certain  number  of  males; 
but  only  one  female  resides  among  them, 
and  she  is  the  sovereign,  the  Queen.  The 
working  bees  perform  all  the  labour ;  they 
collect  pollen  and  honey,  build  the  cells  of 
wax  in  which  are  deposited  the  eggs  and 
provisions  of  the  community,  take  care  of 
the  young  and  defend  the  hive  from  ene- 
mies. The  males,  commonly  called  drones, 
are  only  useful  for  a  short  time,  and  before 
autumn  the  workers  destroy  them  without  pity.  The  cells  just 
mentioned  are  in  form  of  a  little  hexagonal  cup,  and  constitute  by 
their  union  in  series,  regularly  placed  in  rows  one  above  the  other, 
back  to  back,  masses  whose  regularity  and  finish  always  excite 
our  admiration  (Jig.  52) :  they  are  called  honey-comb,  and  there 
are  two  kinds  of  cells ;  the  common  (a)  and  the  royal  cells  (b). 

10.  When  the  period  for  laying  arrives,  the  Queen,  now  an 
object  of  respect  and  of  the  most  assiduous  care  on  the  part  of 
the  workers,  runs  through  the  comb,  examines  the  cells,  and 
deposits  her  eggs  in  them,  first  in  those  that  are  smallest  (a)  and 
destined  for  the  larvse  of  workers ;  then  in  those  of  still  larger 
dimensions,  which  are  designed  to  lodge  the  males  ;  and,  lastly,  in 
those  named  royal  cells  (6),  in  consequence  of  their  size  and  their 

9.  What  are  the  habits  of  bees  ? 

10.  Are  the  cells  of  a  bee-hive  all  of  the  same  size?    What  are  royal 
cells  ?    What  is  bee-bread  ? 


Fig.  52. 

HONEY-COMB. 


RHIPIPTERA.— DIPTERA.  57 

special  destination  for  the  larvse  of  females.  When  the  number 
of  these  chambers  is  too  small,  and  the  female  deposits  several 
eggs  in  the  same  cell,  the  workers  soon  perceive  it,  and  destroy 
them  all  except  one.  Three  days  after  laying,  those  workers  who 
have  not  contributed  to  the  construction  of  the  comb,  but  have 
collected  pollen  and  honey  to  be  deposited  in  magazines  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  begin  to  discharge  the  duty  of  nurses  to 
the  newly  born  larvse,  bringing  them  several  times  daily  a  kind 
of  mixture  varied  according  to  the  age  and  sex  of  those  for 
whom  it  is  intended.  This  mixture  is  known  under  the  name 
of  bee-bread. 

11.  These  larvse  are  completely  apodous,  without   feet,   and 
resemble  small  worms  ;  six  or  seven  days  after  birth,  they  pre- 
pare for  undergoing  their  metamorphosis,  and  the  nurses  then 
enclose  them  in  their  cells,  closing  the  latter  with  a  cover  of  wax ; 
they  remain  in  the  nympha  or  pupa  state  about  eleven  days,  and 
then  disengage  themselves  and  appear  in  the  form  of  bees.     When 
the  number  of  bees  contained  in  the  hive  becomes  too  great  to  be 
comfortably  accommodated,  a  part  of  them,   led   by  a   female, 
emigrate  and  found  a  new  colony,  .termed  a  swarm. 

Although  the  habits  of  bees  are  very  interesting,  our  limits 
require  us  to  refer  the  reader  for  their  history  to  some  of  the 
several  works  specially  treating  of  them.  A  very  entertaining 
and  correct  account  of  them  is  contained  in  the  "  Natural  History 
of  Insects,"  published  in  Harper's  Family  Library. 

ORDER  OF  RHIPIP'TERA. 

12.  The  order  of  Rhipip'tera  (from  the  Greek,  ripis,  a  fan, 
and  pteron,  wing)  is  composed  of  a  small  number  of  insects, 
very  remarkable  on  account  of  their  habits  and  anomalous  form. 
They  may  be  recognised  by  their  two  large  membranous  wings, 
longitudinally  folded  like  a  fan.     In  the  larva  state  they  form  a 
little  oval  worm,  without  legs,  and  live  among  the  scales  of  some 
species  of  Hymenop'terse,  as  wasps,  for  example ;  in  the  same 
situation  they  change  into  the  nympha  state. 

ORDER  OF  DIP'TERA. 

13.  The  order  of  Dip'tera   (from  the   Greek,  dis,  two,  and 
pt.eron,  wing)  is  composed  of  insects  that  have  only  two  wings, 
which  are  membranous  and  extended  (fig.  53). 

14.  The  general  envelope  of  these  insects  is  very  thin    and 

1 1 .  What  are  the  characters  of  the  larvae  of  bees  ? 

12.  How  is  the  order  of  Rhipip'tera  recognised  ? 

13.  How  is  the  order  of  Dip'tera  recognised  ? 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Dip'tera  ? 


58 


MOSQUITOES. 


possesses  very  little  consistence  ;  the  mouth  is  in  form  of  a  trunk, 
and  is  only  adapted  to  sucking ;  their  legs  are  generally  long  and 
slender;  and  the  abdomen  is  more  or  less  pedunculated. 

15.  The  dip'teras  experience  complete   metamorphosis.     The 
larvae  are  apodous,  and  their  head   is   soft    and  variable ;  their 
mouth  is  commonly  furnished  with  two  hooks.     In  most  of  them 
it  is  the  skin  of  the  larva,  which,  by  becoming  hard,  serves  as  a 
cocoon  for  the  nympha,  and  then  puts  on  the  appearance  of  a 
seed  or  egg. 

This  division  is  very  numerous  both  in  genera  and  species ; 
besides  a  great  many  other  insects,  we  place  in  it  mosquitoes, 
flies,  &c. 

16.  The  mosquitoes  —  Culex  —  (fig-  53)  —  have  a  long  hairy 

body,  antenna  in  form  of  plumes,  and  very 
long  legs.     The  inconvenience  and  annoy- 
ance of  these  insects  are  well  known,  par- 
ticularly in  damp,  marshy  situations,  where 
they  are  found  in  the  greatest  abundance. 
Voraciously  fond  of  blood,  they  pursue  us 
everywhere,  enter  our  dwellings,  especially 
in  the  evening,  and   announcing  their   ap- 
proach by  a  sharp  humming  sound,  pierce 
the  skin  with  the  bristle-like  lancets  in  their 
trunk  and  distil  a  venomous  liquid  into  the 
little  wound  thus   made.     In   the   state  of 
larva  and  nympha,  mosquitoes  live  in  water. 
The  larva  has  on  the  segment  of  the  abdo- 
men next  to  the  last  a  long  tube  (fig>  54,  2), 
by  means  of  which  it  draws  from  the  atmo- 
sphere the  air  it  requires:  the  nympha  breathes 
in  the  same  manner,  but  by  means  of  two 
tubes  placed  on  the  thorax ;  it  floats  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and,  after  having  finish- 
ed its  metamorphosis,  the  perfect  insect  makes 
use  of  its  nympha  slough  or  cast  skin,  as  a 
boat,  until  its  legs  and  wings  have  acquired 
sufficient  solidity  to  enable  it  to  walk  on  the 
surface   of    the    water,    or    betake    itself    to 
flight ;    for,  if   its  body  were  submerged,  as 
often  happens  when  the  wind  overturns  their 
frail    barks,    they   would    invariably    drown. 
All  these  metamorphoses  occur  in  the  course 
of  three  or  four  weeks  :  thus,  generations  are  renewed  three  or 
four  times  in  the  same  year. 

15.  How  are  the  larvae  of  dip'terous  insects  characterized  ? 

16.  What  are  the  characters  of  mosquitoes  ?     What  are  the  characters 
and  habits  of  their  larvsB  ? 


Fig.  53. — MOSQUITO. 


Fig.  54, 


FLIES.— SCOLOPENDR.E. 


59 


17.  The   number  of  species  of  flies  (Musca)  is  very  great. 
Their  larvae  feed  on  meat,  carrion,  &c. :  they  are  in  form  of  soft 
whitish  worms,  and  are  frequently  termed  Maggots. 

18.  The  gad-flies  (CEstrus)  resemble  large  flies ;  their  flight  is 
accompanied  by  a  humming  noise ;  they  are  very  tormenting  to 
horses,  oxen,  &c. ;  some  of  them  pierce  the  skin  of  these  ani- 
mals to  deposit  their  eggs  ;  others  simply  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
vicinity  of  one  of  the  natural  apertures  of  the  body,  and  the 
larvae  in  this  manner  at  birth  enter  the  stomach  through  the 
nostrils  or  nasal  sinus.     The  larvae  of  the  GEstri  are  usually 
conical  and  entirely  destitute  of  feet ;  their  presence  in  horses 
constitutes  the  disease  termed  bots. 

CLASS  OF  MYRIA'PODA. 

19.  The  Myria'pods  (from  the  Greek,  murias^  ten  thousand, 
and  pous,  foot)  breathe  air  by  means  of  tracheae,  like  insects,  but 
differ  very  considerably  from  these  animals,   as  well  as  from 
arach'nidans,  in  their  general  conformation.     They  never  possess 
wings,  and  the  body,  which  is  very  much  elongated  and  divided 
into  a  great  many  segments  or  rings,  bears  on  each  ring,  at  least 
one  pair  of  legs ;  the  number  of  these  organs  is  twenty-four,  or 
even  more,  and  there  is  no  line  of  demarcation  between  the  thorax 
and  abdomen.     They  bear   some  resemblance  to   serpents,  or 
rather  to  what  worms  would  be  if  provided  with  legs,  but  their 
internal  organization  is  similar  to  that  of  insects. 


Fig.  55. — SCOLOPEN'DRA. 

20.  The  head  is  furnished  with  two  antennae  and  two  eyes 
ordinarily  formed  by  the  union  of  ocelli.  The  mouth  is  formed 
for  mastication.  The  number  of  rings  of  the  body  varies.  They 
experience  while  young  an  imperfect  metamorphosis,  but  these 
changes  are  not  similar  to  those  we  observe  in  insects  properly 

17.  What  are  maggots? 

18.  What  are  the  characters  of  gad-flies  ? 

19.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  class  Myria'poda  ? 

20.  To  what  description  of  metamorphosis  are  myria'pods  subject  ? 


60         CHARACTERS  OF  ARACHNIDANS. 

so  called,  and  consist  merely  in  the  formation  of  new  rings  and 
a  corresponding  increase  in  the  number  of  legs. 

The  centipedes  (Scoloperi dra)  belong  to  this  class.  Most  of 
them  live  on  the  ground  under  stones  and  delight  in  the  dark 
(Jig.  55). 


LESSON  V. 

CLASS  OF  ARACH'NIDANS. — Organization — Habits — Classifica- 
tion. 

ARACH'NIDA  PULMONARIA. — Aranei'dce  or  Spinners — Mygale 
— Mason  Spider  —  Ara' nea  sedenta'rice  —  Ara'nea  —  Vaga- 
buridte —  Tareritula — Scorpions. 

ARACH'NIDA  TRACHEA'RIA. — Mowers — Aca 'rides — Mites — Itch 
Arach'nidan —  Ticks. 

CLASS  OF  ARACH'NIDA. 

1.  The  class  of  Arach'nidans  (from  the  Greek,  arachen,  spider) 
is  composed  of  animals,  which,  in  their  general  organization, 
resemble  spiders.     Like  crusta'ceans  and  insects,  they  are  articu- 
lated animals  with  white  blood  (which  is  sufficient  to  distinguish 
them  from  anne'lidans) ;  but  they  differ  from  crusta'ceans,  in  the 
fact  that  their  aereal  respiratory  organs  communicate  externally 
by  means  of  openings  called  stigmata  or  spiracles,  and  they 
differ  from  insects  in  the  number  of  their  legs,  which  is  eight,  in 
the  absence  of  a  head  distinct  from  the  thorax,  and,  in  general, 
by  the  existence  of  a  circulatory  apparatus  composed  of  arteries, 
veins,  and    a  dorsal  vessel  which  performs  the  functions  of  a 
heart. 

2.  Most  of  these  animals  are  of  small  size,,  and  the  body  is 
divided  into  but  two  portions ;  namely,  a  first  part,  consisting  of 
the  head  and  thorax  confounded  in  one  piece  (fig.  56) ;   and  a 
second,  consisting  of  the  abdomen. 

3.  The  anterior  portion  or  cephalo-thorax  never  bears  antennre 
as  in  other  articulated  animals ;  in  this  part  we  observe,  in  front 
and  below,  the  mouth,  which  is  furnished  with  mandibles ;  the 
jaw,  almost  always  bearing  palpi,  and   a  lower  lip;  and   pos- 
teriorly, the  legs,  which  in  the  adult  number  four  pairs.     Arach'- 
nidans never  have  wings,  and  their  abdomen,  which    is    gene- 

1 .  What  are  the  characters  of  arachnidans  ? 

2.  How  is  the  body  divided  ? 

3.  What  parts  are  borne  by  the  cephalo-thorax  ? 


CHARACTERS  OF  ARACHNIDANS.         61 

rally  globular,  soft,  and   attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  sort  of 
peduncle,  never  affords  origin  to  legs. 

4.  The  skin  never  possesses  the  hardness  remarked  in  that  of 
crusta'ceans  ;  generally  it  is  rather  coria'ceous  than  horny  ;  some- 
times it  has  considerable  consistence,  and,  in  all  cases,  it  forms  a 
kind  of  external  skeleton,  to  which  the  muscles  designed  to  pro- 
duce motion  are  attached. 

5.  Most  arach'nidans  are  terrestrial  animals,  and  accordingly, 
their  legs  are  formed  for  walking  or  leaping.     These  organs  are 
often  very  long,  and   are  ordinarily  terminated  by  two  hooks. 
Of  the  senses  of  hearing  and  smell  in  these  animals  very  little  is 
known ;  on  the  upper  and  anterior  part  of  the  body,  which  repre- 
sents the  head,  we  find  in  almost  all  a  certain  number,  commonly 
eight,  shining  points,  which  are  the  eyes.     They  are  called  simple 
eyes,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  compound  or  net-like  eyes  of 
insects ;  each  one  consists  of  a  little,  transparent  cornea,  which 
is  convex  and  without  any  trace  of  division  ;  beneath  it  we  find 
a  small  vitreous  body,  a  layer  of  colouring  matter,  and  the  ter- 
mination of  the  optic  nerve. 

6.  The  nervous  system  of  arach'nidans  (Jig>  56)  is  composed, 
1st,  of  a  pair  of  ganglia  situated  in  the  head  in   front  of  the 
oesophagus ;  2d,  two  nervous  cords  which  pass  from  this  species 
of  brain  into  the  thorax,  forming  a  collar  around  the  oesophagus ; 
3d,  a  nervous  mass  situated  in  the  thorax,  beneath  the  digestive 
tube,  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  ganglia  which  are  com- 
monly agglomerated;   4th,  of  one  or  more  abdominal  ganglia; 
and  5th,  of  nerves  which  pass  from  these  different  ganglia  to  all 
parts  of  the  body. 

7.  Most  arach'nidans  are  carnivorous.     Some  have  their  mouth 
armed  with  cutting  or  sharp  jaws,  and  feed  on  insects  which  they 
seize  alive ;  some  fix  themselves  on  other  animals  and  live  by 
sucking  their  blood ;  these  parasites  have  a  mouth  formed  like  a 
sucker.     We  distinguish  in  the  apparatus  of  manducation  of  the 
first:  1st,  a  pair  of  mandibles,  which  are  generally  armed  with 
a 'movable  claw;  2d,  two  jaws   bearing  articulated  palpi;  3d,  a 
small    lip  without    palpi.     The  digestive  canal    extends   to   the 
extremity  of  the  abdomen  ;  close  to  the  mouth  we  find  salivary 
organs  which   open   into  the  first  joint  of  the  mandibles,   and 
appear  to  secrete  a  venomous  liquid.     And  biliary  tubes,  which 
form  a  substitute  for  a  liver,  are  attached  to  the  digestive  tube 
further  back. 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  the  skin  of  arach'nidans  ? 

5.  What  is  the  character  of  the  eyes  of  arach'nidans  ? 

6.  How  is  the  nervous  system  constituted  .' 

7.  What  is  the  character  of  the  mouth  in  arach'nidans  ? 

6 


62 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ARACHNIDANS. 


8.  Most  arach'nidans  have  a  complete  circulation.  In  these 
animals  the  heart  is  placed  in  the  abdomen,  and  in  several  species 
of  aranei'dse  (from  the  Latin,  ara'nea,  a  spider)  its  pulsations  can 
be  distinguished  through  the  teguments.  It  is  a  large  longitudinal 
vessel,  which  gives  rise  to  the  arteries  and  receives  the  veins 
through  which  the  blood  returns  from  the  respiratory  organs  to 
be  again  distributed  to  different  parts  of  the  body. 

9.  In  this  class  of  animals  the 
organs  of  respiration  differ  exceed- 
ingly ;  in  some  they  consist  of  pul- 
monary  sacs,    and    in    others,    of 
tra'cheee. 

10.  The  pulmonary  sacs  (br,fig. 
56)  are  small  cavities,  the  parietes 
of  which  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  a    great    number   of  extremely 
thin,  white,  minute  triangular  plates. 
The    number  of  these    respiratory 
pouches  is  generally  two  ;  but  some- 
times there  are  four  or  even  eight. 
The  apertures  through  which  each 
one  communicates  externally,  called 
stigmata  or  spiracles  (s),  are  in  form 
of  minute   transverse   slits,  situate 
at  the  inferior  part  of  the  abdomen. 

11.  The  tra'cliece  are  tubes  that 
issue  from  or  rather  are  continuous 
with  apertures  similar  to  those  just 
mentioned, and  are  ramified  through 
the  substance  of  all  the  organs,  so 
as  to  convey  air  to  all  parts  of  the 

body.     This  arrangement   is   represented  in  Jig.  13  (page  25), 
which  shows  the  arrangement  in  an  insect. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  56. —  Anatomy  of  Arach'nidans.  —  A  mygale  seen 
from  below.  71,  the  ce'phalo-thorax  ; — A,  the  abdomen  ; — m,  the  mandibles  ; 
— pa,  the  palpi  of  the  jaws  ;— p  1,  p  2,  p  3,  p  4,  bases  of  the  legs  ;— gc,  the 
cephalic  ganglion  or  brain,  behind  which  we  see  the  nervous  collar  which 
surrounds  the  oesophagus  ; — gt,  the  nervous  mass  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  thoracic  ganglia  ; — n,  nerves  of  the  legs  ; — ga,  abdominal  ganglion  ; — s, 
stigmata  or  spiracles ;  —  fer,  one  of  the  pulmonary  sacs  opened  to  show  the 
inamKi-anruia  Inminno  whir>Vi  Imp  it.  int.p.rnnllv  : — o.  the  ovarv  : — an.  the  anus  : 


an       f 
Fig.  56. — ARACH'MDAN. 


membranous  laminae  which  line  it  internally  ; 
— /,  the  spinnerets. 


-o,  the  ovary  ; — an,  the  anus ; 


8.  What  kind  of  circulation  have  arach'nidans  ? 

9.  Is  the  character  of  the  respiration  the  same  in  all  arach'nidans? 

10.  What  are  pulmonary  sacs  ?     What  are  stigmata  ? 

11.  What  are  tra'cheee?  (pronounced,  tra'-ke-ay.) 


ARACHNIDA  PULMONARIA SPINNERS.  63 

12.  Those  arach'nidans  that  breathe  by  these  tubes  have  no 
circulatory  apparatus,   while  those  that    breathe  by  lungs   are 
always  provided  with  one. 

13.  After  leaving  the  egg,  these  animals  do  not,  like  insects, 
•indergo  metamorphosis,  although  at  this  period  they  often  have 
but  six  legs,  the  fourth  pair  not  being  developed  until  after  the 
little  creature  has  changed  its  skin ;  like  the  crusta'ceans,  the 
arach'nidans  frequently  cast  the  skin  or  moult. 

14.  The  class  of  arach'nidans  is  divided  into  two  orders,  which 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  following  characters  : — 

1st.  The  ARACH'NIUA  PULMONA'RIA  have  eight  simple  eyes, 
and  pulmonary  sacs  for  respiration. 

2d.  The  ARACH'NIDA  TRACHEA'RIA  have  at  most  four  simple 
eyes,  and  trach'ess  for  respiration. 

ORDER  OF  ARACH'NIDA  PULMONA'RIA. 

15.  The  division  of  pulmonary  arachnidans  includes  all  the 
common  araneidaB.     The  circulatory  apparatus  is  well  developed, 
and  they  have  from  six  to  eight  eyes,  while  the  next  order  has 
but  four  or  even  only  two.     The  number  of  stigmata  is  two,  four, 
or  eight. 

16.  This  group  is  divided  into  two  families  :  the  Aranei'dce  or 
spinners,  and  the  Pedipalpi. 

17.  The  ARANEI'U^E  or  spinners  have  but  one  or  two  pairs  of 
pulmonary  cavities,  which  may  be  distinguished    by  as    many 
whitish  or  yellowish  spots  near  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  ; 
their    palpi   are  in   form  of  little   feet  without   pincers  at  their 
extremity  (fig.  56,  p). 

18.  One  of  the  most  curious  phenomena  in  the  history  of  these 
animals  is  their  mode  of  spinning  silk,  and  with   this  delicate 
material  making  webs  which  are  as  remarkable  for  their  extent 
as  for  the  regularity  with  which  they  are  woven.     This  silk  is  a 
matter  secreted  by  a  peculiar  apparatus  situated  in  the  abdomen 
of  the  spider;  it  escapes  externally  by  a  certain  number  of  spin- 
nerets or  small  holes  placed  at  the  summits  of  several  little  nip- 
ples near  the  anus  (/,  f-g.  56).     The  threads  of  silk    at    the 
moment  of  escaping  are  glutinous,  and  to  be  employed  by  the 
animal,  require  to  be  dried,  but  when  the  temperature  is  favour- 

12.  Are  trach'eoe  in  arachnidans  accompanied  by  a  circulatory  apparatus  ? 

13.  Do  arach'nidans  experience  metamorphosis  ? 

14.  How  is  the  class  of  arach'nidans  divided  ? 

15.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  pulmonary  arach'nidans? 

16.  How  are  the  pulmonary  arach'nidans  divided? 

17.  How  are  the  aranei'dae  distinguished  ? 

18.  What  is  spiders'  web  ?    How  is  it  formed  ?    To  what  purposes  is  it 
applied  ? 


HABITS  OF  SPIDERS. 


able,  an  instant  is  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  The  sedentary 
Aranei'daB  (those  which  do  not  go  in  pursuit  of  their  prey)  weave 
with  these  threads  various  structures  which  they  use  as  snares  to 
entrap  the  insects  necessary  for  their  nourishment;  sometimes 
these  webs  are  so  strong  as  to  arrest  small  birds,  but  generally 
they  are  very  delicate.  After  constructing  it,  the  animal  places 
himself  in  its  centre  or  at  the  bottom  of  its  web,  sometimes  in  a 
particular  habitation  situated  near  one  of  its  angles ;  as  soon  as 
an  insect  is  caught  in  the  snare,  he  rapidly  approaches  his  prey, 
and  makes  every  effort  to  pierce  it  with  a  kind  of  venomous  dart 
with  which  the  mandibles  are  furnished,  and  distils  into  the  wound 
a  poison  which  acts  very  promptly ;  when  the  insect  offers  too 
strong  resistance,  or. when  it  would  be  dangerous  for  the  spider 
to  contend  with  it,  he  retires  for  a  moment  to  wait  till  its  powers 
are  exhausted,  or  until  it  is  more  entangled  ;  or  if  there  is  nothing 
to  fear,  he  hastens  to  bind  it  by  throwing  threads  of  silk  around 
its  body,  which  sometimes  envelope  it  entirely,  forming  a  cover- 
ing so  thick  as  to  remove  it  from  sight. 

19.  The  female  Aranei'da3  also  employ  their  silk  in  construct- 
ing bags  or  cocoons  to  contain  their  eggs. 

20.  Those  white  and  silky  flocculi, 
which  are  seen  floating  on  the  air,  in 
foggy  weather,  in  the  spring  and  au- 
tumn, are  composed  of  silk  of  this  kind 
produced  by  various  young  Aranei'da3 ; 
they  are  principally  the  strong  threads 
which  serve  to  attach  the  corners  of 
the  web,  or  those  which  compose  the 
chain,  and,  having  become  heavier  by 
the  action  of  the  moisture,  sink,  ap- 
proach  each   other,  and  finally  form 
little  pellets. 

21.  Most  Arach'nidans  of  this  divi- 
sion are  more  or  less  venomous ;  the 
bite  of  some  large  species  in  hot  coun- 
tries is  sometimes  fatal  to  man  ;  and  in 
our  climate,  a  spider  of  moderate  size 
will  kill  a  fly  in  a  few  minutes  by  in- 
flicting a  single  wound. 

22.  The  MYGALES  (/#.  57),  which 

Explanation  of  Fig.  57. — The  mygalc  or  mason  spider ; — a,  the  cephalo- 
thorax  ; — ft,  the  abdomen  ; — p,  the  palpi. 

19.  How  do  the  female  aranei'dae  take  care  of  their  eg-g-s  ? 

20.  What  are  those  white  flocculi  sometimes  seen  in  foggy  weather  ? 

21.  Are  spiders  venomous? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  Mygales  ?     What  are  the  habits  of  Mason 
Spiders  ? 


Fig.    57. — MYGALE. 


MASON  SPIDERS.  65 


form  one  of  the  principal  subdivisions  of  this  family,  have  four 
pulmonary  sacs.  Some  of  them  are  of  large  size,  and  are  known, 
in  South  America,  among  the  French,  under  the  name  of  crab- 
spiders  ;  there  is  one,  which,  with  the  legs  extended,  covers  a 
circular  space  of  seven  inches  in  diameter.  They  live  on  trees 
or  among  rocks.  Other  Mygales,  much  smaller,  however,  in- 
habit the  South  of  France,  and  dig  subterranean  galleries  in  form 
of  tubes,  in  dry  and  mountainous  situations,  the  apertures  to 
which  are  furnished  with  movable  doors. 

"  The  mason  spiders  (Mygale  ccementaria}  excavate  for  themselves  sub- 
terranean caverns,  in  which  these  marauders  lurk,  secure  from  detection, 
even  by  the  most  watchful  foe :  nor  could  any  robber's  den,  which  ever 
existed  in  the  wild  regions  of  romance,  boast  more  sure  concealment  from 
pursuit,  or  immunity  from  observation.  The  construction  of  these  singular 
abodes  has  long  excited  the  admiration  of  the  naturalist:  a  deep  pit  is  first 
dug  by  the  spider,  often  to  the  depth  of  one  or  two  feet,  which,  being  care- 
fully  lined  throughout  with  silken  tapestry,  affords  a  warm  and  ample 
lodging ;  the  entrance  to  this  excavation  is  carefully  guarded  by  a  lid  or 
door,  which  moves  upon  a  hinge,  and  accurately  closes  the  mouth  of  the 
pit.  In  order  to  form  the  door  in  question,  the  Mygale  first  spins  a  web 
which  exactly  covers  the  mouth  of  the  hole,  but  which  is  attached  to  the 
margin  of  the  aperture  by  one  point  only  of  its  circumference,  this  point 
of  course  forming  the  hinge.  The  spider  then  proceeds  to  lay  upon  the 
web  a  thin  layer  of  soil  collected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  her  dwelling, 
which  slve  fastens  with  another  layer  of  silk ;  layer  after  layer  is  thus  laid 
on,  until  at  length  the  door  acquires  sufficient  strength  and  thickness : 
when  perfected,  the  concealment  afforded  is  complete ;  for,  as  the  outer 
layer  of  the  lid  is  formed  of  earth  precisely  similar  to  that  which  surrounds 
the  hole,  the  strictest  search  will  scarcely  reveal  to  the  most  practised  eye 
the  retreat  so  singularly  defended." — T.  Rym.tr  Jones, 

The  other  Aranei'dee  never  have  more  than  two  pulmonary 
sacs:  a  large  number  is  known;  they  are  subdivided  into  many 
tribes,  which,  in  turn,  are  composed  of  many  genera. 

23.  The  Ara'nece  sedenta'ricey  or  sedentary  spiders,  form  one 
of  these    divisions.     They   are    remarkable    for    their   habit  of 
remaining  in  their  webs,  and  keeping  in  their  snares  or  close  by 
them,  to  surprise  their  prey,  instead  of  going  abroad  in  pursuit 
of  food. 

24.  To  this  tribe  belong  the  spiders,  properly  so  colled  (Ara'nea, 
or  Tegena'ria},  which  live  in  the  interior  of  our  hcnses,  in  hedges, 
along  the  road-sides,  &c.,  and  weave  a  large,  nearly  horizontal 
web,  at  the  upper  part  of  which  is  a  tube  where  they  keep  them- 
selves perfectly  at  rest. 

25.  Other  Aranei'dse  are  wandering,  and  constitute  the  tribe  of 
Vagaburi da.     They  make  no  web,  but  watch  for  their  prey  ana 

23.  How  are  sedentary  spiders  distinguished  ? 

24.  What  are  spiders,  properly  so  called  ? 

25.  What  is  the  taren'tula  ? 

6* 


PEDIPALPL— SCORPIONS. 


pounce  upon  it  or  seize  it  in  its  flight.  A  species  of  this  group, 
the  tareri'tula  (Lycosa)  is  very  celebrated  ;  it  derives  its  name 
from  being  found  near  Tarentum,  a  city  of  Italy  :  it  is  common 
in  all  the  warm  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the  opinion  of  the  people, 
its  poison  produces  death  or  serious  consequences,  which  can 
only  be  dissipated  by  having  recourse  to  music  and  dancing. 
But  it  is  now  known  that  the  poison  of  this  animal  is  not  really 
dangerous  to  any  thing  but  the  insects  upon  which  it  feeds. 

26.  In  the  FAMILY  OF  PEDIPALPI,  there  are  four  or  eight  pul- 
monary sacs,  and  the 
palpi  are  very  large 
and  terminated  by  pin- 
cers or  claws,  called 
cheli'cerce  (c).  They 
have  no  spinnerets. 

27.  The  SCOBPIONS 
—Scorpio  (fig.  58)— 
belong  to  this  family. 
They  may  be  at  once 
Fig.  58.— SCORPION.  recognised  by  the  ab- 

domen,   which    is    in 

form  of  a  knotted  tail,  terminating  in  an  arcuated,  excessively 
acute  point  or  sting.  They  inhabit  the  hot  countries  of  both 
hemispheres,  live  on  the  ground,  conceal  themselves  under  stones 
and  other  bodies,  most  commonly  in  ruins,  dark  and  cool  places, 
and  even  in  houses.  They  run  with  considerable  swiftness, 
curving  their  tail  over  the  back.  They  can  turn  it  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  can  use  it  in  attack  and  defence.  With  their  pincers 
they  seize  various  insects,  on  which  they  feed,  pierce  them  with 
their  sting  by  directing  it  forwards,  and  then  pass  their  prey 
through  the  cheli'cerse  and  jaws.  The  wound  produced  by  the 
sting  of  some  species  is  followed  by  serious  and  alarming  symp- 
toms. The  remedy  employed  is  the  volatile  alkali,  used  both 
internally  and  externally. 

ORDER  OF  ARACH'NIDA  TRACHEA'RIA. 

28.  The  Arach'nidans  of  this  order  are  not  provided  with  pul- 
monary sacs,  but  breathe  by  means  of  trach'eoe.  The  air  pene- 
trates into  these  canals  through  two  very  small  stigmata,  situated 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen.  They  all  seem  to  be  without 
a  circulatory  apparatus ;  some  of  them  have  no  eyes,  and  those 
that  possess  them,  never  have  more  than  two  or  four. 

26.  How  is  the  family  of  Pedipalpi  characterized? 

27.  How  are  scorpions  recognised  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

28.  How  are  the  tracheal  Arach'nidans  characterized  ? 


MOWERS.— MITES. 


67 


Fig.  59. PHALANGIUM. 


29.  In  this  order  are 
placed  mites,  the  mow- 
ers (p/talan'giu?n),  &c. , 
so  remarkable   for   the 
length  of  their  legs  (Jig. 
59).     Their    mandibles 
are     shorter    than    the 
body,  and  their  eyes  are 
borne    on     a    common 
peduncle.       They     are 

very  active ;  some  live  on  the  ground,  and  others  on  trees. 

30.  The  tribe  of  ACA'RIDES  or  mites  is  composed  entirely  of 
very  small  or  microscopic  Arach'nidans.     Their  habits  vary  very 
much.      Some    live   on    the    ground    under 

stones,  or  on  plants ;  others  are  aquatic ; 
some  are  only  found  in  organic  substances, 
which  are  more  or  less  changed,  as  old 
cheese,  &c. ;  and  there  are  some  that  live  in 
the  skin  or  flesh  of  different  animals.  A 
species  of  mite,  the  Icplus  autumnalis,  very 
common  in  autumn  on  wheat  and  other 
plants,  insinuates  itself  under  the  skin  and 
occasions  an  almost  insupportable  itching. 
To  one  genus  of  mites,  called  Sarcop'tes 
(from  the  Greek,  sarx,  in  the  genitive,  sarkos, 
flesh,  and  koptein,  to  cut),  is  due  that  loath- 
some disease  the  itch.  This  a'carus  is  repre- 
sented (fig.  60)  magnified.  Other  parasitic 
arach'nidans  attach  themselves  to  dogs,  oxen,  &c.,  and  are  known 
under  the  name  of  ticks,  &c. 


Fig.  60. — A'CARUS. 


29.  What  are  mowers  ? 

30.  What  are  Aca'rides  ? 


What  is  the  cause  of  itch  ?     What  are  ticks  ? 


CRUSTACEANS. 


LESSON  VI. 

CLASS  OF  CRUSTA'CEA. — Organization  —  Moulting —  Circula- 
tion— Respiration — Division. 

CLASS  OF  CRUSTA'CEA. 

1.  The  class  of  CRUSTA'CEA  (from  the  Latin,  crusta,  a  hard 
covering)  comprises  all  articulated  animals,  that  have  articulated 
legs,  and  are  provided  with  a  heart,  and  branchiae  for  breathing 
water.     Crabs    and  cray-fish  are  types  of  this    group ;  but  we 
place  also  in  it  a  great  number  of  animals  whose  structure  is 
much  more  complicated,  and  whose  external  form  is  very  dif- 
ferent; for,  in  proportion  as  we  descend  in  the  natural    series 
formed   by  these  creatures,  we  observe  the  same  general    plan 
becomes  modified,  and  more  and  more  simplified.     The  body  in 
most  of  them  is  covered  by  a  sort  of  crust  of  almost  stony  hard- 
ness. 

2.  Crusta'ceans  differ  greatly  from  anne'lidans,  but  resemble 
insects  and  arach'nidans  by  having  white  blood,  and  articulated 
legs ;  and  are  distinguished  from  the  two  last  classes,  by  their 
branchial  respiration,  by  the  number  of  their  legs,  and  by  several 
other  characters. 

3.  The  body  of  crusta'ceans  is  composed  of  a  succession  of 
rings  more  or  less  distinct.     Sometimes    these    segments   move 
freely  on  each  other,  and  at  others  they  are  so  solidly  joined  that 
the  rings  are  merely  indicated  by  ridges.     Frequently  the  head 
and  thorax  form  but  one  piece,  which  is  separated  from  the  abdo- 
men.    In  the  lobster,  for  instance,  the  head  and  thorax  are  con- 
founded in  one  mass,  and  the  abdomen  is  composed  of  seven 
distinct  and  movable  rings  (Jig.  61,  b).     It  is  the  same  in  crabs, 
except  that  the  abdomen  is  smaller,  and  folded  underneath  ;  but 
in  the  wood-louse,  the  head  is  distinct  from  the  thorax,  which  is 
itself  divided  into  seven  movable  rings.     The  legs,  which  are 
composed  of  several  articulations,  are  inserted  into  the  thorax  : 
their  number  is  ordinarily  five  or  seven  pairs  ;  lobsters  and  crabs 

1.  What  description  of  animals  constitute  the  class  of  Crusta'cea  ? 

2.  How   are  Crusta'ceans  distinguished  from  Anne'lidans,  insects   and 
Arach'nidans  ? 

3.  How  are  Crusta'ceans  characterized? 


LOBSTERS. 


-d 


have  five,  but  the  wood- 
louse  has  seven  pairs  of 
legs.  The  head  is  pro- 
vided in  front  with  two 
pairs  of  appendages, 
called  antennse  (£->f,fig. 
61),  and  is  also  furnish- 
ed with  several  pairs  of 
jaws,  and  the  abdomen 
bears  other  appendages 
in  form  of  fins.  An 
examination  of  the 
figure  (61),  which  re- 
presents a  lobster,  will 
enable  us  better  to  un- 
derstand the  various 
parts  of  crusta'ceans: — 
a,  the  carapace,  or  com- 
mon integument  of  the 
head  and  thorax  ;  —  6, 
the  abdomen,  composed 
of  seven  rings  ; — c,  the 
caudal  fin  ;  —  d,  the 
eyes;  —  e,  the  internal 
antennse  ;  — f,  the  ex- 
ternal antennas ; — g,  the 
palpi,  which  are  articu- 
lated filaments  attached 
to  the  jaws  or  to  the 
lower  lip,  and  appear 
to  be  employed  by  the 
animal  in  recognising 
its  food;  —  7i,  the  first 
pair  of  legs,  called 

chelcB  (from  the  Greek,  chele,  pincers) ;  —  ^,  the  second  pair  of 
legs,  also  terminated  by  pincers; — j,  the  third  pair  of  legs,  ter- 
minated by  pincers,  and  termed  foot-jaws  ;  —  k,  the  fourth  pair; 
— I,  the  fifth  pair  of  legs. 

4.  The  external  skeleton  of  crusta'ceans  is  formed  of  an  ex- 
tremely hard  epidermis :  at  certain  periods  it  is  detached  and  falls 
off.  The  necessity  for  such  changes  or  moulting  in  animals, 
whose  body  is  enclosed  in  a  hard  sheath,  is  very  plain  ;  for  inas- 
much as  this  sheath  does  not  grow  or  enlarge,  like  the  internal 
parts,  it  would  oppose  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  their  develop- 


—ft 


r.  61. — LOBSTER. 


4.  What  kind  of  skeleton  do  Crusta'ceans 
preserve  the  same  covering  ? 


possess?     Do  they  always 


70  MOULTING  OF  CRUSTACEANS. 

ment,  if  it  did  not  fall  off  when  it  had  become  too  small  to  con- 
veniently accommodate  them  :  therefore,  crusta'ceans  change  their 
skin  as  long  as  they  continue  to  grow,  and  it  appears  that  most 
of  these  animals  grow  during  their  whole  lives.  The  manner  of 
getting  rid  of  the  old  envelope  is  very  curious.  Generally  they 
succeed  without  producing  any  deformity,  and  when  they  leave 
it,  the  surface  of  the  whole  body  is  already  provided  with  a  new 
sheath ;  but  it  is  still  soft,  and  becomes  hard  at  the  expiration  of 
some  days.  Crabs  which  have  recently  cast  their  old  shell  or 
skin,  and  while  the  new  skin  remains  soft,  are  considered  a  great 
delicacy. 

"  We  are  ind<  bted  to  Reaumur,  who  watched  the  process  in  the  cray-fish 
(Astacusfluviatilis},  for  what  little  is  known  concerning  the  mode  in  which 
the  change  of  shell  (in  crustaceans)  is  effected.  In  the  animal  above  men- 
tioned, towards  the  commencement  of  autumn,  the  approaching  moult  is 
indicated  by  the  retirement  of  the  cray-fish  into  some  secluded  position, 
where  it  remains  for  some  time  without  eating.  While  in  this  condition, 
the  old  shell  becomes  gradually  detached  from  the  surface  of  the  body,  and 
a  new  and  soft  cuticle  is  formed  underneath  it,  accurately  representing  of 
course  all  the  parts  of  the  old  covering  which  is  to  be  removed ;  as  yet,  but 
little  calcareous  matter  is  deposited  in  the  newly  formed  integument.  The 
creature  now  becomes  violently  agitated,  and  by  various  contortions  of  its 
body  seems  to  be  employed  in  loosening  thoroughly  every  part  of  its  worn- 
out  covering,  from  all  connection  with  the  recently  secreted  investment. 
This  being  accomplished,  it  remains  to  extricate  itself  from  its  imprison- 
ment; an  operation  of  some  difficulty  ;  and,  when  the  nature  of  the  armour 
to  be  removed  is  considered,  we  may  well  conceive  that  not  a  little  exertion 
will  be  required  before  its  completion.  As  soon  as  the  old  case  of  the 
cephalo-thorax  has  become  quite  detached  from  the  cutis  by  the  interposi- 
tion of  the  newly  formed  epidermic  layer,  it  is  thrown  off  after  great  and 
violent  exertion  ;  the  legs  are  then  withdrawn  from  their  cases  after  much 
struggling ;  and,  to  complete  the  process,  the  tail  is  ultimately  by  long  con- 
tinued efforts  extricated  from  its  calcareous  covering,  and  the  entire  coat  of 
mail  which  previously  defended  the  body  is  discarded  and  left  upon  the 
sand.  The  phenomena  which  attend  this  renovation  of  the  external  skeleton 
are  so  unimaginable,  that  it  is  really  extraordinary  how  little  is  accurately 
known  concerning  the  nature  of  the  operation.  The  first  question  which 
presents  itself,  is,  how  are  the  limbs  liberated  from  their  confinement?  for, 
wonderful  as  it  may  appear,  the  joints  even  of  the  massive  chelae,  of  the 
lobster  do  not  separate  from  each  other ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  great  size 
of  some  of  the  segments  of  the  claw,  and  the  slender  dimensions  of  the 
joints  that  connect  the  different  pieces,  the  cast-off  skeleton  of  the  limb 
presents  exactly  the  same  appearance  as  if  it  still  encased  the  living  mem- 
ber. The  only  way  of  explaining  the  circumstance,  is  to  suppose  that  the 
individual  pieces  of  the  skeleton,  as  well  as  the  soft  articulations  connect- 
ing them,  split  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  and  that,  after  the  abstraction  of 
the  limb,  the  fissured  parts  close  again  with  so  much  accuracy  that  even 
the  traces  of  the  division  are  imperceptible." — T.  Rymcr  Jones. 

It  is  said  that  a  lobster  will  throw  off  its  claws  it'  alarmed  by  the  report 
of  a  cannon.  This  singular  power  of  breaking  off  their  own  limbs,  pos- 
sessed by  many  crustaceans,  is  a  very  indispensable  provision  in  their 
economy.  Should  the  claw  of  a  lobster,  for  example,  be  damaged  by  acci- 
dents to  which  creatures  encased  in  such  brittle  armour  must  be  perpetually 


ORGANIZATION  OF  'CRUSTACEANS.  71 

exposed,  the  animal  might  bleed  to  death,  if  it  did  not  at  once  break  off  the 
injured  member  at  a  particular  point;  namely,  at  a  point  in  the  second  piece 
from  the  body  ;  and  by  this  operation,  which  seems  to  produce  no  pain,  the 
bleeding  is  effectually  staunched.  After  this  extraordinary  amputation  has 
been  effected,  another  leg  begins  to  sprout  from  the  stump,  which  soon 
grows  to  be  an  efficient  substitute  for  the  lost  extremity,  and  gradually, 
though  slowly,  acquires  the  pristine  form  and  dimensions  of  its  predecessor. 
The  process  of  reproduction  is  as  follows:  —  the  broken  extremity  of  the 
second  joint  skins  over,  arid  presents  a  smooth  vascular  membrane,  at  first 
flat,  but  soon  becoming  conical  as  the  limb  begins  to  grow.  As  the  growth 
advances,  the  shape  of  the  now  member  becomes  apparent,  and  constrictions 
appear,  indicating  the  position  of  the  articulation  ;  but  the  whole  remains 
unprotected  by  any  hard  covering,  until  the  next  change  of  the  shell,  after 
which  it  appears  in  a  proper  case,  being,  however,  still  considerably  smaller 
than  the  corresponding  claw  on  the  opoosite  side  of  the  body,  although 
equally  perfect  in  all  its  parts. 

5.  The  nervous  system  of  crusta'ceans  is  considerably  develop- 
ed :  the  ganglia  of  the  head  and  thorax  are  large,  and  the  latter 
are  sometimes  united  in  a  single  mass.     Most  of  these  animals 
have  eyes  of  a  very  complicated  structure.     In  general  each  one 
of  these  organs  is  composed  of  an  assemblage  of  a  multitude  of 
little  eyes,  and  the  cornea  covering  each  presents  a  considerable 
number  of  square  or  hexagonal  facets   corresponding    with    it. 
Sometimes  these  compound    eyes    are  very  slightly  projecting, 
sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  placed  at^  the  end  of  two 
movable  stems  which  are  fixed  on  the  front  part  of  the  head  ;  by 
means  of  these  peduncles  or  stems  they  can  be  directed  forwards 
or  thrown  backwards,  in  a  kind  of  orbit  (as  in  crabs,  Jig.  63). 
In  most  crusta'ceans  too,  we  observe  an  organ  of  hearing,  which 
consists  of  a  small  tubercle,  situated  between  the  mouth  and  the 
base  of  the  external  antennae,  enclosing  a  small  vesicle  filled  with 
water,  and  the  termination  of  the    acoustic    nerve.     From   the 
stony  nature  of  the    skin,  their   sense  of  touch  must    be  very 
obtuse. 

6.  The  legs  of  crusta'ceans  do  not  serve  them  for  walking  or 
swimming  only;  in  general,  the  first  pair  terminate  in  a  sort  of 
pincers  (called  chela],  by  aid  of  which  the  animal  seizes  its  prey 
(fig.  61). 

7.  Most  of  these  animals  are  carnivorous  ;  some  are  parasites, 
and  live  on  other  animals,  whose  blood  they  suck  by  means  of  a 
kind  of  trunk  ;  but  most  of  them  feed  on  solid  food,  and  have 
mouths  armed  with  strong  jaws,  often  numbering  six  pairs.     The 
stomach  is  situated  immediately  under  the  mouth  in  the  .interior 
part  of  the  body  (Jig.  62,  e) ;  it  is  large,  and  its  parietes  are 

5.  What,  is  the  character  of  the  eyes  in  crusta'ceans  ?     Have  they  an 
organ  of  hearing  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  chela  ? 

7.  Upon  what  do  crusta'ceans  feed  ? 


72 


ANATOMY  OF  CRUSTACEANS. 


a  a 


an 


qbr         p      p         p  br 

Fig.  62. ANATOMY    OF    CRUSTACEANS — LOBSTER. 

commonly  supported  by  solid  plates,  and  internally  furnished 
with  very  hard  teeth.  The  intestine  is  narrow,  and  on  each  side 
<}f  this  tube  we  see  the  liver  (/),  which  is  generally  very  volu- 
minous ;  but  sometimes  we  find  simple  biliary  vessels  substituted 
for  it. 

8.  The  heart  of  crusta'ceans  (c)  is  situated  near  the  back,  about 
the  middle  of  the  thorax  ;    it  is  generally  of  considerable  size, 
and  consists  of  one  ventricle  only,  which  forces  the  blood  through 
the  arteries.     After  having  furnished  nutritious  material  to  the 
various  organs,  this  liquid  goes  to  the  venous  sinus  placed  "along 
the  base  of  the  legs,  thence  to  the  respiratory  organs  (br),  and 
then  returns  to  the  heart.     The  heart  of  crusta'ceans  is  aortic, 
and  the  circulation  is  carried  on  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
mollusks. 

9.  The  respiration  of  crusta'ceans  is  almost  always  aquatic, 
and  is  effected  by  means  of  branchiae  (br).     These  organs  vary 
both  in  form  and  situation;  but  they  are  generally  attached  near 
the  base  of  the  legs. 

10.  All  crusta'ceans  are  ovi'parous;  after  laying  her  eggs,  the 

Explanation  of  Fig.  62.  —  Anatomy  of  Crusta'ceans.  —  A  lobster  seen  in 
profile,  the  greater  part  of  the  integuments  being  removed  ;  —  c,  the  heart; 
—  a,  o,  the  abdominal  artery  ;  —  as,  the  sternal  artery  ;  —  a,  artery  of  the 
antennse  ;  —  e,  the  stomach  ;  —  m,  muscles  of  the  stomach  ; — /,  the  liver; — 
br,  branchiae  ;  — p,  buse  or  point  of  insertion  of  the  legs  ;  —  ca,  part  .of  the 
carapace  ; — b,  the  mouth ; — r,  the  respiratory  canal  destined  to  give  passage 
to  water  for  the  purpose  of  respiration  ;  —  y,  the  eyes  ;  —  an,  the  superior 
antennae;  —  ant,  base  of  the  inferior  or  second  pair  of  antennae  ;  —  q,  the 
caudal  fin,  the  principal  organ  of  progression. 

8.  What  is  the  character  of  the  circulation  ? 

9.  How  do  crusta'ceans  breathe  ? 

10.  How  are  the  young  of  crusta'ceans  produced  ? 


CRUSTACEANS.— DEC  APOD  A.  73 

female  carries  them  for  a  time  suspended  under  the  abdomen, 
or  even  enclosed  in  a  kind  of  pouch  formed  of  appendages  of  the 
legs ;  sometimes  the  young  are  born  in  this  pouch,  and  remain  in 
it  until  after  they  have  undergone  the  first  moult. 

11.  The  CLASS  OF  CRUSTA'CEA  is  divided  into  three  natural 
groups  or  divisions,  according  to  the  conformation  of  the  mouth ; 
namely, 

1st.  The  Trite! res  or  Grinders,  haviag  the  mouth  furnished  with 
jaws  and  mandibles  proper  for  mastication. 

2d.  The  Sucto'ria  or  Suckers,  having  a  mouth  provided  with  a 
tubular  beak  armed  with  suckers. 

3d.  The  Xi'phosura  (from  the  Greek,  xiplws,  a  sword,  and 
oura,  tail),  in  which  the  mouth  is  destitute  of  the  appendages  pro- 
perly belonging  to  it,  but  is  surrounded  by  legs,  the  bases  of 
which  constitute  the  jaws. 

12.  The  group  of  TRITO'RES  or  Grinders  is  divided  into  nine 
orders,  and  comprises  most  of  the  crusta'ceans.     The  principal 
orders  are  named  Decapoda,  Isdpoda,  Am'phipoda,  &c. 


LESSON  VII. 

CRUSTA'CEANS.     ORDER  OF  DECAPODA — its  Division. 

BRA'CHYU'RA. — Crabs — Land-crabs — Habits. 

ANOMOU'RA. — Soldier  or  Hermit-crabs. 

MACROU'RA. — Craw-fishes — Lobsters — Locuske — Prawns. 

ORDERS  OF  AM'PHIPODA  and  ISO'PODA. — Sea-louse — Wood-louse 

— King-crab — Entomo 'stracans —  Trilobites. 
CLASS  OF  CIRR'HOPODA. — Ana'tifa — J3ala'nus. 

I.  The  order  of  DECAPODA  (from  the  Greek,  deca,  ten,  and 
pouSj  foot)  is  so  called,  because  the  animals  comprised  in  it  have 
ten  legs.     These  crusta'ceans  (fig.  63)  have  the  head  and  thorax 
confounded  in  one  piece,  and  concealed  under  a  kind  of  shield, 
called  carapace  (fig.  61,  a).     The  eyes  are  borne  on  movable 
peduncles,  and  the  branchiae  are  situate  on  each  side  of  the  thorax, 
enclosed  in  particular  cavities  beneath  the  lateral  parts  of  the 
carapace  (Jig.  62,  br).     The  mouth  is  armed  with  six  pairs  of 
jaws ;  the  first  pair  are  named  mandibles ;  the  two  next  are  jaws, 
properly  so  called  ;  and  the  three  last  are  termed  foot  jaws.     In 

II.  How  is  the  class  of  Crusta'cea  divided  ? 
12.  How  is  the  group,  of  Trito'res  divided  ? 

1.  What  are  the  characters  of  decapods? 

7 


74 


CRABS, 


some,  the  abdomen  is  very  short,  and  folded  beneath  the  thorax 
(fg>  63) ;  while  in  others,  this  part  of  the  body  extends  back- 
wards, is  of  considerable  size,  and  is  a  powerful  organ  of  loco- 
motion (Jig.  61,  page  69). 

2.  This  order  is  divided  into  the  Macrou'ra  (from  the  Greek, 
makros,  long,  and  oura,  tail)  or  swimming  decapods,  which  have 
a  long  abdomen  terminated  by  a  fin  spread  out  like  a  fan  (Jig. 
61,  c) ;  the  Bra'chyu'ra  (from  the  Greek,  brachus,  short,  and 
oura,  tail)  or  short-tailed  species,  of  which  the  crab  is  a  familiar 
specimen  ;  and  the  Anomou'ra  (from  the  Greek,  an&mos,  name- 
less, irregular,  and  oura,  tail),  which  inhabit  the  empty  shells  of 
mollusks. 

3.  The  section  of  BRA'CHYU'RA  consists  of  crusta'ceans,  known 
under  the  common  name  of  crabs ;  they  are  formed  for  running, 
rather  than  swimming.     This  section  is  divided  into  four  families, 
each  of  which  is  composed  of  several  tribes,  subdivided  in  turn 
into  a  jrreat  many  genera ;  they  are  esteemed  as  food.     Most  of 
ihem  inhabit  the  sea.     They  run  quickly  along  the  shore ;  their 

legs    are    placed    in 

bed  e       such  w*se  that  they 

most  easily  move 
sideways,  although 
they  can  advance  ia 
any  direction.  The 
first  pair  of  legs  are 
pincers  or  claws,  and 
do  not  assist  in  loco- 
motion. 

4.  Among  the 
common  species,  on 
the  French  coast, 
is  one,  sometimes 
known  as  the  mad 
crab,  Cancer  mcBnas, 
from  its  manner  of 
running ;  it  is  of 
moderate  size,  and 
the  carapace  is 


Fig.  63.— CRAB. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  63.—  A  crab  (Cancer  -pagurus} ;— a,  the  carapace; — 
fe,  the  eyes  ;  —  c,  the  external  antennae ;  —  d,  the  internal  antennae  ;  —  c,  the 
chelae  or  pincers  ;— /,  second  pair  of  legs  ;— g,  the  abdomen,  folded  beneath 
the  thorax. 

2.  How  is  the  order  of  Decapoda  divided  ? 

3.  What  crusta'ceans  are  comprised  in  the  section  Bra'chyu'ra  ?     How 
are  crabs  characterized?. 

4.  How  does  the  mad  crab  obtain  its  name  1 


LAND-CRABS.  75 


greenish,  which  becomes  red  by  boiling,  as  is  the  case  with  most 
crusta'ceans.  Among  the  crabs,  properly  so  called,  is  the  Cancer 
pagurm  (Jig,  63),  which  is  among  the  largest  species;  the  cara- 
pace is  .somewhat  oval,  ten  to  twelve  inches  wide,  of  a  reddish- 
brown  colour,  and  festooned  on  the  edges;  its  flesh  is  much 
esteemed.  A  group,  named  Portunus  (from  the  Latin,  portus, 
a  haven  or  hay),  is  distinguished  by  the  lamellar  form  of  the  last 
joint  of  the  posterior  legs" ;  these  crabs  are  essentially  swimmers. 

5.  Land-crabs — Gecarci'nm    (Jig.  64) —  inhabit    the    West 
Indies  and  other  warm  countries.     These  crabs,  instead  of  living 
in  the  sea,  as  most  crusta'ceans  do,  are  essentially  terrestrial,  and 
they  sometimes   live  at 

a  considerable  distance 
from  the  shore.  They, 
nevertheless,  avoid  ex- 
tremely dry  situations, 
and  are  ordinarily  found 
in  marshy  districts. — 
They  all  dig  deep  holes. 
They  are  commonly 
seen  at  night,  or  just 
after  abundant  rains,  ,  Fig.  64.— LAND-CRAB. 

when  they  sally  forth  in 

crowds  from  their  subterranean  habitations  in  pursuit  of  food , 
some  species  live  principally  on  vegetables ;  but  others  seek  ani- 
mal food  with  avidity;  great  numbers  are  found  in  cemeteries; 
and,  it  is  said  that,  in  the  West  Indies,  they  have  been  known  to 
enter  dissecting-rooms  to  feast  on  the  dead. 

6.  One  of  the  most  curious  points  in  the  history  of  these  ani- 
mals is  that  they  make  an  annual  journey  to  the  sea-shore.     In 
the  rainy  season  they  abandon  their  holes ;    they  assemble    in 
almost  numberless  troops,  and,  guided  by  an  instinct  which  is 
incomprehensible  to  us.  take  a  direct  line  towards  the  sea,  although 
they  are  often  very  distant  from  it.     They  travel  chiefly  at  night, 
and  nothing  but  large  rivers  arrests  or  turns  them  from  their 
route  ;  they  march  over  houses,  scale  rocks,  and  often  destroy 
whole  plantations,  cutting  and  destroying  the  young  plants   as 
they  pass  along.     Having  reached  the  sea,  these  armies  of  crabs 
plunge  in  and  bathe  several  times,  and  then  retire  to  the  plains  or 
neighbouring  woods.     Sometime  afterwards  the  females  go  again 
to  the  sea  and  there  deposit  their  eggs  ;  then  they  take  up  their 
march  and  return  to  their  ordinary  abode;  but  at  this  time  they 
are  so  thin  and  feeble,  they  can  scarcely  drag  themselves  along. 

5.  What  are  the  characters  of  land-crabs? 

6.  What  are  tiie  habits  of  land-crabs  ? 


76  SOLDIER-CRABS. 


We  find  in  Italy,  Greece,  and  Egypt,  another  species  of  land- 
crab,  which  lives  along  the  margins  of  rivulets,  known  to  natura- 
lists under  the  name  of  Thdphu'sa  flaviati'lis. 

7.  The  decapods  of  the  section  of  ANOMOU'RA  differ  from  each 
other  widely  in  their  organization.     Although  the  abdomen  or 
tail   is    not   reduced   to   the   rudimentary  condition,   as   in    the 
Bra'chyu'ra,  it  does  not  afford  them  great  assistance  in  swimming. 
As  their  name  imports,  the  Anomou'ra  have  tails  of  very  unusual 
conformation  ;  instead  of  being  encased  in  a  hard  coat  of  mail, 
as  in  the  lobster,  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  soft  and  leathery. 
This  section  includes  many  genera. 

8.  The  Soldier -crabs  or  Hermit-crabs  (Pagurus)  are  remark- 
able for  their  habits.     They  frequent   sandy  and  level   shores. 
They  always  take  possession  of  empty  turbinated  shells  of  some 
gasteropod  mollusk,  in  which  they  establish  themselves,  and  we 
may  readily  conceive  of  the  reason  of  this  habit :  the  abdomen, 
instead  of  being  hard  and  crusta'ceous,  as  in  other  animals  of  the 
same  class,  is  always  soft  and  membranous ;  therefore,  to  defend 
it  from  the  attacks  of  their  enemies    and  to  preserve  it  from 
numerous  accidents  to  which  its  softness  exposes  them,  they  need 
a  kind  of  armour,  which  they  find  in  the  shells  in  which  they 
lodge.     When  they  have  increased  in  size  and  find  the  dimen- 
sions of  their  dwelling  too  narrow,  they  take  possession  of  a 
more  voluminous  shell ;  but,  except  for  this  purpose  only,  they 
never  go  out  of  the  shell  entirely,  but  always  carry  about  with 
them  their  domicil,  and  on  the  approach  of  the  smallest  danger 
retire  into  it.     It  is  said,  that  if  we  remove  from  their  shells  a 
number  of  these  soldier-crabs,  or  pirates,  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  and  leave  the  party  only  one  or  two  of  the  same  shells, 
they  will  fiercely  dispute  possession. 

"The  wonderful  adaptation  of  all  the  limbs  to  a  residence  in 
such  a  dwelling  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  most  incurious  observer. 
The  chelce,  or  large  claws,  differ  remarkably  in  size;  so  that, 
when  the  animal  retires  into  its  concealment,  the  smaller  one 
may  be  entirely  withdrawn,  while  the  larger  closes  and  guards 
the  orifice.  The  two  succeeding  pairs  of  legs,  unlike  those  of 
the  lobster,  are  of  great  size  and  strength ;  and,  instead  of  being 
terminated  by  pincers,  end  in  strong  pointed  levers,  whereby  the 
animal  can  not  only  crawl,  but  drag  after  it  its  heavy  habitation." 

9.  The  decapods  of  the  section  of  MACROU'RA  are  recognised 
at  first  sight  by  the  great  development  of  their  abdomen,  which 
always  terminates  in  a  large  fin  (fig.  61,  e),  composed  of  five 

7.  How  is  the  section  Anomou'ra  distinguished  ? 

8.  What  are  hermit-crabs  ? 

9.  How  is  the  section  Macrou'ra  distinguished  ? 


CRAY-FISHES.— LOBSTER,  &c.  77 

plates  arranged  like  a  fan.  They  are  essentially^wimmers,  and 
never  land ;  they  never  walk  except  at  the  bottom,  under  water ; 
they  swim  almost  constantly,  and  by  striking  the  water  with  their 
powerful  tail,  dart  forward  with  great  rapidity.  The  body  is 
elongated,  and  almost  always  laterally  compressed;  they  have 
very  long  antennae,  and  false  natatory  legs  beneath  the  abdomen. 
This  section  of  decapods  is  divided  into  four  families :  Cray  or 
craw-fish,  Lobsters,  Locustse,  and  Prawns, 

10.  Cray-fishes  are  distinguished  from  most  other  decapods  by 
the  conformation  of  their  legs;  those  of  the  first  pair  terminate 
in  very  large  chela?  or  pincers ;  and  those  of  the  two  succeeding 
pairs,  although  slender,  also  terminate  in  pincers.     The  carapace 
is  a  little  elongated,  and  is  not  armed  with  spines,  and  its  anterior 
extremity  is  always  extended  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  beak  or 
projecting  rostrum  (Jig.  65,  r).     These  crusta'ceans  are  aquatic ; 
some  live  in  fresh  water,  and  others  inhabit  the  sea. 

11.  The  fresh-water  cray-fisli  ( Astacus  fluv iatilis)  is  found  in 
the  fresh  waters  of  most  countries  of  Europe,  and    ordinarily 
keeps  under  stones.     It  feeds  on  mollusks,  fishes,  putrid  flesh, 
&c.     It  is  said  to  live  more  than  twenty  years ;  those  found  in 
running  waters  are  most  esteemed. 

12.  The  sea  cray-Jish  or  lobster — Astacus  marinus  (fg.  61) — 
is  much  larger  than  the  fresh-water  or  river  cray-fish  ;  like  the 
locustas,  it  frequents  fissures  among  rocks.    The  American  species 
is  somewhat  different  from  that  of  Europe.     Lobsters  are  caught 
in  traps,  made  of  slats  or  osiers,  baited,  and  then  sunk  by  means 
of  a  weight ;  a  buoy  and  cord  are  attached  to  draw  up  the  trap 
for  examination,  at  the  proper  time. 

13.  The  locustse  (Palinu'rus}  are  the  largest  of  all  the  deca- 
pods of  this  section.     Their  carapace  is  studded  with   a  great 
number  of  spines,  and  terminated  by  two  thick   points  curved 
forwards;  the  abdomen  is  very  large;  their  legs  are  all  termi- 
nated by  a  single  toe;  those  of  the  first  pair  are  strongest,  but 
shorter  than  those  of  the  second  pair.     These  crusta'ceans  inhabit 
almost  every  sea,  and  are  sought  as  food.     The  Palinu'rus 'quad- 
ricornis  is  sometimes  half  a  yard  in  length,  and  when  loaded 
with  ova  weighs  from  twelve  to  fourteen  pounds. 

14.  Prawns — Pal&rnon  (Jig.  65) — -are  small  decapods,  having 
an  elongated,  laterally  compressed  body;  the  legs  are  slender, 
and  those  of  the  two  first  pairs  are  terminated  by  little  pincers , 

10.  How  are  cray-fishes  distinguished  ? 

11.  Do  all  cray-fishes  live  in  salt  water? 

12.  What  are  lobsters? 

13.  What  are  locustae  ? 

14.  What  are  prawns  ? 

7* 


78 


PRAWNS.— SEA-LICE. 


r    y 


Fig.  65. — PAL^EMON  or  PRAWN. 


the  antennae  are  very  long,  and  the  beak  or  rostrum  is  serrated, 
and  very  projecting.  The  flesh  is  very  delicate  and  esteemed  to 
be  superior  to  that  of  shrimps. 

15.  Those  crusta'ceans  which  compose  the  orders  of  AM'PHI- 
roDA  (from  the  Greek,  amphis,  on  both  sides,  and  pous,  foot)  and 
ISO'PODA  (from  the  Greek,  isos,  equal,  and  pous,  foot),  do  not, 
like  the  decapods,  bear  their  eyes  on  movable  peduncles,  nor  do 
they  possess  a  carapace ;  their  head  is 
distinct,  and  the  thorax  is  divided  into 
seven  rings.  The  Am'phipods  breathe 
by  vesicular  appendages  fixed  under 
the  thorax,  near  the  base  of  the  legs ; 
and  the  Is'opods,  by  means  of  mem- 
branous lamellae,  which  terminate  the 
appendages  attached  to  the  abdomen. 

16.  Among  the  Am'phipods  are  the 

Fig.  66,-TALiTRA.  sea-lice—  Talitra  (jig.  66)— small  ani- 

mals  which  often  remain  on  shore  after 

the  fall  of  the  tide,  where  they  may  be  seen  jumping  with  great 
activity. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  65.  —  The  Prawn  or  Paloemon :  —  as,  first  pair  of 
antenna ; — ai,  second  or  inferior  pair  of  antennae ; — I,  the  lamellar  append- 
age covering  its  base;  —  r,  the  rostrum  ;  —  y,  the  eyes; — pm,  external  foot- 
jaws; — p,  first  thoracic  leg;  —  pp,  second  thoracic  leg; — fp,  false  natatory 
legs  of  the  abdomen ; — n,  caudal  fin. 

15.  How  are  the  orders  of  Am'phipoda  and  Iso'poda  characterized  ? 

16.  What  are  sea-lice  ? 


KING-CRABS. 


79 


Fig.  67. 

ONISCUS. 


17.  Most  of  the  Iso'pods  inhabit  the  sea,  but  there 
are  some  that  live  on  land.     To  this  order  belongs 
tiie  wood-louse — Oniscus  {fig.  67) — which  is  com- 
monly found  in  caves,  beneath  stones,  and  in  other 
damp,  shaded  situations. 

18.  The  Sucto'ria — the  crusta'ceans  of  this  divi- 
sion are  parasites,  and  live  on  other  animals ;  they 
have   a  m<Juth   in  form  of  a  beak  or  cylindrical 
trunk,  enclosing  styliform  appendages,  suitable  for 
piercing  the  integuments  of  those  animals  whose 

fluids  they  suck.     They  are  generally  found  attached  to  fishes 

19.  The  division 
of  crusta'ceans  named 
XI'PHOSURA  forms  a 
single  genus,  Limulus  Pm 
or  king-crab.  They 
are  large  animals,  hav- 
ing a  body  divided  into 
two  parts ;  the  first 
part,  which  is  covered 
by  a  semicircular  shield 
or  carapace,  bears  the 
eyes,  the  antenna?,  and 
six  pairs  of  legs  which 
surround  the  mouth 
(fig.  68,  6),  and  at  the 
same  time  serve  for  pro- 
gression and  mastica- 
tion, as  well  as  for  the 
prehension  of  food  ;  the 
second  part  of  the  body, 
which  is  covered  by  an 
almost  triangular  shield, 
bears,  underneath,  five 
pairs  of  natatory  legs, 
the  posterior  sides  of 
which  are  furnished 

with  branchice,  and  is  terminated  by  a   styliform    tail.     These 
singular  animals  are  found  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  our  own 

Explanation  of  Fig.  67. — A  king-crab  viewed  from  below  :  —  c,  the  cara 
pace ;— q,  the  tail ; — b,  the  mouth ;— pm,  legs  which  surround  the  mouth ;-  • 
pb,  the  legs  bearing  branchiae  or  gills. 

17.  What  are  wood-lice  ? 

18.  What  are  suctorial  crusta'ceans  ? 

19.  What  are  king-crabs  ?    How  are  they  characterized  ? 


Fig.  68. — KING-CRAB — LIMULUS. 


80 


TRILOBITES.— CIRRHOPODA. 


coasts.     On  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  they  form 
an  article  of  food  for  swine. 

20.  The  En'tomos'tracans  (from  the  Greek,  entomos,  incised, 
and  ostrakan,  a  shell)  are  all  extremely  small,  and  most  of  them 
have  a  single  eye  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  front  part  of  the 
animal.     They  abound  in  fresh  waters. 

21.  To  the  class  of  Crusla'ceans  also  belong  the  Tri'lobites,  a 
tribe  of  extinct  animals  found  only  in  the  fossil  state^  they  would 
bear  some  resemblance  to  a  very  large  oniscus  or  sea-louse,  if  the 
body  of  the  latter  were  divided  into  three  lobes  by  longitudinal 
grooves.     Three  species  of  trilobiles  are  figured  below  (fig.  69). 


Asaphus  Caudatus. 


Asaphus  Buchii. 
Fig.  69. 


Colytnene  Blumenbachii 


CLASS  OF  CIRRHOPODA  OR  CIRRIPEDA. 

"However  distinct  in  outward  appearance,  and  even  in  their 
internal  economy,  the  creatures  composing  the  primary  divisions 
of  animated  nature  may  seem  to  be  when  superficially  examined, 
closer  investigation  invariably  reveals  to  the  zoologist  gradations 
of  structure  connecting  most  dissimilar  types  of  organization, 
and  leading  so  insensibly  from  one  to  another,  that  the  precise 
boundary  line  is  not  always  easily  defined.  The  Cirrhopods  or 
Barnacles  present  a  remarkable  exemplification  of  this  important 
fact." 

22.  The  class  of  Cirrhopoda  (from  the  Greek,  kirros,a  cirrus 
or  curl,  and  pous,  foot)  is  composed  of  animals,  which,  in  many 
respects,  especially  as  to  their  shells,  resemble  mollusks,  but  are 

20.  What  are  en'tomos'tracans  ? 

21.  What  are  tri'lobites  ? 

22.  What  are  Cirrhopods  ?     How  are  they  characterized  ? 


CIRRHOPOD. 


81 


more  closely  allied  to 
articulated  animals. 
In  the  early  period 
of  their  existence  all 
these  creatures  are 
marine,  and  swim 
readily,  and  resem- 
ble, particularly  in 
their  organization, 
certain  inferior  crus- 
ta'ceans  ;  but  very 
soon  after  birth,  they 
permanently  attach 
themselves  to  some 
submarine  body,  and 
entirely  change  their 
form.  In  this  man- 
ner they  are  fixed  by 
the  base.  The  body- 
is  more  or  less  pyri- 
form  and  doubled  on 
itself,  and  is  enclosed 
entirely,  or  in  part, 
in  a  kind  of  shell 
composed  of  several 
pieces.  They  have 
no  eyes,  and  the 


Fig.  70. — CIKRHOPOD  or  CIRRIPED. 


mouth    is    furnished 
with  mandibles   and 

jaws,  closely  resembling  those  of  certain  crusta'ceans  ;  the  ab- 
dominal face  of  the  body  is  occupied  by  two  rows  of  fleshy 
lobes,  each  one  bearing  two  long  horny  appendages  (c),  armed 
with  cilise,  and  composed  of  a  multitude  of  little  articulations, 
corresponding  in  a  manner  to  the  fins  or  feet  found  under  the  tail 
of  several  crusta'ceans.  These  arms  or  cirri,  of  which  there  are 
twelve  pairs,  are  doubled  on  themselves,  and  the  animal  is  con- 
stantly drawing  them  in  and  then  protruding  them  through  the 
opening  of  its  sheath.  The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  double 
series  of  ganglia,  arranged  like  that  of  other  articulated  animals. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  70. — A  Pentalasmis  or  anatifa,  represented  with  one- 
half  the  shelly  covering  removed  to  show  the  body : — a,  a,  shell ; — 6,  6,  the 
body,  which  is  soft,  enclosing  the  principal  viscera  ;  — £-,  the  mouth,  seen 
from  the  ventral  aspect,  the  oral  aperture  appears  to  be  raised  on  a  promi- 
nent tubercle ; — J,  </,  J,  fleshy  appendages  which  constitute  the  respiratory 
or  branchial  organs  ; — c,  c,  flexible  arms,  or  cirri ;— /,  muscle  for  protiuding- 
the  cirri  through  the  slit  of  the  mantle ;  —  /,  the  pedicle  or  base  by  which 
the  animal  attaches  itself  to  submarine  bodies. 


82 


ANATIFA — BALANUS. 


Fig.  71. 

ANATIFA. 


They  have  a  heart,  which  is  placed  on  the  dorsal  part  of  the 
body,  and  they  breathe  by  branchiae,  the  form  of  which  varies. 

23.  The  Cirrhopods  are  divided  into  two  natural 
families:    the  ANATIFJE,  which  are  fixed  by  a 
long  cylindrical  peduncle,  and  the  BALANI,  which 
are  without  a  similar  peduncle. 

24.  The  Anatifse,  known  in  common  parlance 
as  barnacles  (Jigs.  70  and  71),  are  enclosed  in 
a  sort  of  compressed  mantle,  open  on  one  side, 
and   suspended   from  a  fleshy  tube ;  sometimes 
this  mantle  is  almost  entirely  cartilaginous,  and 
is    only  furnished    with    two   very  small  valves 
(as  in  the  genus  Otion}  ;  at  other  times,  as  in 
the    genus  ANATIFA,    properly  so    called,  it   is 
covered  by  five  testaceous  plates,  the  two  largest 
of  which    resemble   those   of  a   mussel.     The 
branchiae,  which  are  in  form  of  small  pyramids, 
are  attached  to  the  base  of  the  cirri.    The  com- 
mon Anatifa  inhabits  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  is 

frequently  found  attached  to  rocks,  the  bottoms  of  ships,  or  pieces  of 

floating  timber.  It  was  the  subject 
of  a  most  absurd  fable ;  from  some 
remote  resemblance  of  its  shell  to  a 
bird,  it  was  supposed  to  give  origin 
to  a  species  of  duck,  and  from  this 
it  has  obtained  the  name  Anatifa 
(from  the  Greek,  anas,  a  duck). 

25.  The  Balani — Balanus  (fig. 
72)  —  abound  on  rocks  in  warm 
regions  of  the  ocean,  and  are  entire- 
ly contained  in  a  very  short,  conical 
shell,  attached  firmly*  by  the  base, 
and  composed  of  several  pieces 
joined  together;  the  opening  of  this 
tube  is  occupied  by  from  two  to  four 
movable  valves,  between  which  we 
find  a  slit  which  gives  passage  to 
the  cirri.  The  branchise  are  in 
form  of  membranous,  foliated  and 
fringed  plates ;  they  adhere  to  the 

internal  face  of  a  sort  of  mantle  which  lines  the  shell. 

23.  How  are  Cirr'hopods  divided  ? 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  Ana'tifce  ? 

25.  What  are  the  characters  of  Bala'ni  ? 


ig.  72. — GIANT  BALANUS. 


STRUCTURE  OF  ANNELIDANS.  80 


LESSON  VIII. 

CLASS    OP   ANNE'LIDA.  —  Organization  —  Division  —  Earth- 
worms. 

FAMILY  OF  SUCTO'RIA. — Leech. 
ORDER  OF  DORSIBRANCHIA'TA. — Eunice. 
ORDER  OF  TUBICOLA. — Sabella. 

CLASS  OF  ANNELIDA.* 

The  lowest  class  of  articulated  animals  comprehends  an  exten- 
sive series  of  creatures  generally  grouped  together  under  the  com- 
mon name  of  worms. 

1.  The  class  of  anne'lidans  is  composed  of  red-blooded  worms, 
and  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  Branch  of  articu- 
lated animals  by  the  absence  of  articulated  extremities. 

2.  The  body  of  these  animals  is  considerably  elongated,  and 
generally  slender  (figs.  76  and  79) ;  it  is  composed  of  a  succes- 
sion of  numerous  rings,  the  first  of  which,  although  it  differs  but 
little  from  the  others,  may  be  called  the  head ;  it  contains  the 
mouth,  which  is  sometimes  armed  with  a  formidable  apparatus 
of  jaws.     The  skin  has  little  consistence,  and  the  rings  formed 
by  it  are  never  horny  nor  stony.     Many  anne'lidans  are  entirely 
without  legs,  an  example  of  which  is  seen  in  the  leech  (fig.  76) ; 
and  when  these  organs  do  exist,  they  are  never  formed  of  solid 
pieces,   articulated  end  to  end,  as  in  insects,  crusta'ceans,  and 
arach'nidans ;  they  are  merely  fleshy  tubercles,  armed  with  stiff* 
setae  or  movable  bristles,  and  are  arranged  in  pairs  on  each  side 
of  the  body,  and  are  commonly  found  on  each  ring.     The  figure 
(73)  on  the  next  page,  represents  a  transverse  section  of  an  anne'li- 
dan,  and  conveys  an  idea  of  the  character  of  the  extremities  of 
these  animals; — d,  is  the  dorsal  arch  of  the  ring; — v,  the  ventral 
arch  ; — rv,  an  extremity  of  the  ventral  arch  ; — rd,  an  extremity 
of  the  dorsal  arch; — 5,  setse  or  bristles,  surrounding  the  append- 
age, called  cirrus  (e).     The  Eunice  (Jig.  79),  a  marine  worm 
often  found  on  oysters,  is  an  example  of  an  animal  having  extre- 
mities of  this  kind. 

3.  The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  long  series  of  minute 

*  From  the  Latin,  annulus,  a  little  ring. 

1.  How  are  anne'lidans  distinguished  from  other  articulated  animals  ? 

2.  How  are  anne'lidans  characterized  ? 

3.  What  is  the  character  of  their  nervous  system  ? 


84 


ANATOMY  OF  ANNELIDANS. 


d 


rd 


V  TV 

Fig.  73. — SECTION  OF  AN  ANNELIDAN. 


ganglia;  there  is  a  pair  of  ganglia  in  each  ring,  which  circum- 
stance may  account  for  the  curious  fact,  that  when,  in  some 
instances,  a  part  of  a  worm  is  cut  off,  both  parts  still  live. 

4.  Most  anne'lidans  have,  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  body, 
black  spots  which  appear  to  be  eyes  of  a  very  simple  structure : 
they  never  possess  distinct  organs  of  smell  or  of  hearing ;  but 
they  often  bear  on  the  head,  or  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  fila- 
ments called  antennse  and  tentacles,  which  seem  to  serve  them 
as  organs  of  touch.     In  general  these  animals  move  by  crawling, 
and  assist  themselves  in  progression  by  the  setce  with  which  they 
are  armed,  but  they  are  never  swift :  many  live  buried  in  the 
earth,  or   are  enclosed  in  solid  tubes  which  they  never   leave. 
Most  of  them  inhabit  the  sea. 

5.  The  digestive  apparatus  of  anne'lidans  is  not  particularly 
remarkable,  except  for  the  sucker  (£?",  j^.  74)  with  which  the  mouth 
in  many  of  them  is  furnished  ;  some  have  a  long  projectile  trunk, 
and  they  are  often  provided  with  small  horny  jaws.     They  all 
appear  to  be  carni'vorous. 

6.  The  blood  of  anne'lidans  differs  from  that  of  all  other  inver- 
tebrate animals  by  its  red  colour ;  it  circulates  in  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  arteries  and  veins,  and  often,  it  appears  to  be  set  in  motion 
by  several  fleshy  ventricles  which  may  be  regarded  as  hearts 
(Jig.  74,  c). 

7.  Almost  all  these  animals  live  in  water;  they  breathe  by  the 
skin,  or  through  branchia?  (br),  which  resemble  little  packets  of 
fringe,  attached  along  each  side  of  the  back. 

4.  In  what  organs  of  sense  are  anne'lidans  deficient  ? 

5.  What  is  the  character  of  the  digestive  apparatus  ? 

6.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  blood  in  anne'lidans  ? 

7.  How  do  anne'lidans  breathe  ? 


ORDERS  OF  ANNELIDANS.  85 

t  vd  br  br  br  br  vd 

\  \ 

tr      \ 


av  vi    va 

Fig.  74. ANATOMY  OF  ANNELIDANS. 

8.  According  to  the  differences  in  their  respiratory  organs,  this 
class  is  divided  into  three  orders;  namely, 

1st.  The  abranchiate  anne'lidans  (from  the  Greek,  a,  without, 
and  bragchos,  branchia,  or  gills),  in  which  there  is  no  visible 
respiratory  apparatus. 

2d.  The  dorsibranchiate  anne'lidans  (from  the  Latin,  dorsum, 
back,  and  branchia,  gills),  in  which  the  branchiae  are  arranged 
along  the  middle  or  on  each  side  of  the  back,  in  form  of  vascular 
tufts,  fringes,  &c.  (fig.  74,  br). 

3d.  The  tubicola — tubicole  anne'lidans  (from  the  Latin,  tubus, 
a  tube,  and  colo,  I  inhabit)  inhabit  a  fixed  and  permanent  resi- 
dence, which  encloses  and  defends  them.  The  two  preceding 
orders  are  erratic.  The  branchiae  are  in  form  of  plumes  or 
branches  attached  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  (fig.  80). 

9.  The  abrarichia — this  order  comprehends  two  very  distinct 
families  :  the  terricola  setigerous  abran'chiate  anne'lidans,  which 
have  the  body  furnished  with  seta3  (bristles),  serving  them  for 
locomotion,  and  the  sucto'ria  or  suctorial  abran'chiate  anne'lidans, 
which  are  without  setce,  but  have  a  prehensile  sucker  attached  to 
each  extremity  of  the  body. 

10.  To  the  family  of  terrico'la  (from  the  Latin,  terra,  earth, 
and  colo,  I  inhabit)  belongs  the  lumbricus  or  earth-worm,  so  com- 
mon in  our  gardens.     The  body  of  these  animals  is  cylindrical, 
elongated,  and  divided  by  plaits  into  a  great  many  rings,  and 
they  are  totally  destitute  of  legs ;  in  place  of  them,  we  find  on 

Explanation  of  Fig.  74. — Anatomy  of  anne'lidans — longitudinal  section 
of  an  Arenicola  ; — t,  the  cephalic  extremity  ; — 6,  the  mouth  ; — tr,  the  trunk 
or  sucker  ; — ph,  the  pharynx  ; — e,  the  stomach  ;  —  i,  the  intestine ;  —  a,  the 
anus  ; — br,  the  branchiae; — c,  one  of  the  ventricles  serving  as  a  heart; — ctJ, 
ventral  vessel ;  —  ca,  vessels  which  carry  the  blood  to  the  branchiae  ;  —  ve, 
vessels  which  bring-  the  blood  back  from  the  branchiaB  to  the  interior ; — vd, 
dorsal  vessel  into  which  many  of  these  last  vessels  empty ; — ui,  inferior  in- 
testinal vessel,  which  also  receives  vessels  coming  from  the  branchiae  •  it 
opens  in  the  dorsal  vessel  near  the  heart. 

8.  How  is  the  class  of  anne'lidans  divided  ? 

9.  How  are  anne'lidans  of  the  order  abran'chia  characterized  ? 
10.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  earth-worm  ? 

8 


86  EARTH-WORMS.—SUCKERS. 

each  side  a  number  of  setse  which  serve  them 
for  locomotion.  They  have  neither  eyes,  tenta- 
cles, nor  jaws.  If  we  cut  one  of  these  into  two 
pieces,  each  piece  continues  to  live,  and  becomes 
a  perfect  animal ;  the  part  of  the  body  which  is 
deficient  is  reproduced. 

11.  The  lumbrici  (earth-worms)  are  propa- 
gated by  eggs,  which,  when  laid,  are  two  or 
three  lines  in  length.  In  the  annexed  figure  (75), 
one  of  them,  enclosing  a  mature  embryo,  is  de- 
lineated ;  the  top  is  closed  by  a  peculiar  valve- 
p.  ~  like  structure,  adapted  to  facilitate  the  escape  of 

EGG    OF     THE     the  worm.     The  egg  commonly  has  a  double  yolk, 
EARTH-WORM.      and  a  couple  of  young  ones  are  produced  generally 
from  each  egg. 

"  Whoever  has  attentively  watched  the  operations  of  an  earth-worm,  when 
busied  in  burying  itself  in  the  earth,  must  have  been  struck  with  the  seem- 
ing disproportion  between  the  laborious  employment  in  which  it  is  per- 
petually engaged,  and  the  means  provided  for  enabling  it  to  overcome  dif- 
"ficulties  apparently  insurmountable  by  any  animal  unless  provided  with 
limbs  of  extraordinary  construction,  and  possessed  of  enormous  muscular 
power.  In  the  mole  and  burrowing  cricket  we  at  once  recognise  in  the  im- 
mense development  of  the  anterior  legs  a  provision  for  digging,  admirably 
adapted  to  their  subterranean  habits."  Every  ring  of  the  lumbricus,  "  when 
examined  attentively,  is  found  to  support  a  series  of  sharp,  retractile  spines 
or  prickles ;  these,  indeed,  are  so  minute  in  the  earth-worm,  that  on  passing 
the  hand  along  the  body  from  the  head  backwards,  their  presence  is  scarcely 
to  be  detected  by  the  touch,  but  they  are  easily  felt  by  rubbing  the  animal 
in  the  opposite  direction  ;  a  circumstance  which  arises  from  their  hooked 
form,  and  from  their  points  being  all  turned  towards  the  tail."  By  the  aid 
of  these  the  animal  makes  its  way  in  the  following  manner :  "  The 
attenuated  rings  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth  are  first  insinuated 
between  the  particles  of  the  earth,  which,  from  their  conical  shape,  they 
penetrate  like  a  sharp  wedge;  in  this  position  they  are  firmly  retained  by 
the  numerous  recurved  spines  appended  to  the  different  segments;  the 
hinder  parts  of  the  body  are  then  drawn  forwards  by  a  longitudinal  con- 
traction of  the  whole  animal  ;  a  movement  which  not  only  prepares  the 
creature  for  advancing  further  into  the  soil,  but  by  swelling  out  the  anterior 
segments  forcibly  dilates  the  passage  into  which  the  head  had  been  already 
thrust:  the  spines  on  the  hinder  rings  then  take  a  firm  hold  upon  the  sides 
of  the  hole  thus  formed,  and,  preventing  any  retrograde  movement,  the  head 
is  again  forced  forward  through  the  yielding  mould,  so  that,  by  a  repetition 
of  the  process,  the  animal  is  able  to  advance  with  the  greatest  apparent  ease 
through  substances  which  would  at  first  seem  utterly  impossible  for  so  help- 
less a  being  to  penetrate." — Thomas  Rymer  Jones — Comparative  Anatomy, 

12.  The  family  of  sucto'ria  or  suckers  comprises  the  leech, 
and  all  anne'lides  that  are  unprovided  with  setae.  The  integu- 
ments are  soft ;  the  body  is  generally  oblong,  slightly  depressed, 

11.  Hotfr  are  earth-worms  propagated? 

12.  How  is  the  family  of  Sucto'ria  characterized  ? 


LEECHES. 


87 


Fig.  76. 

LEECH. 


and  divided  into  a  great  many  segments:  it  is 
entirely  without  legs  or  setse,  but  has  at  either 
extremity,  a  dilatable,  prehensile  cavity,  which 
performs  the  functions  of  a  cupping-glass. — 
The  mouth,  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  anterior 
or  oral  sucker  (fig.  76,  a),  has  neither  trunk 
nor  tentacle,  but  is  armed  with  hard  parts  which 
serve  the  purposes  of  jaws.  It  has  a  certain 
number  of  eyes,  or  rather  ocellar  points,  situated 
on  the  dorsal  face  of  the  anterior  extremity  of 
the  body.  The  anus  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  posterior  sucker  (6). 

13.  All  these  anne'lides  feed  at  the  expense  of 
other  animals.  They  attach  themselves  to  fishes 
or  batrachians ;  sometimes  they  devour  mollusks, 
anne'lidans,  or  the  larvae  of  insects ;  certain 
species  attach  themselves  to  horses  and  cattle, 
and  even  to  men,  when  they  drink  at  springs  ; 
sometimes  fixing  themselves  under  the  tongue,  in 
the  nostrils,  or  even  in  the  gullet. 

The  mouth  of  a  leech  is  an  exceedingly  perfect  appara- 
tus. "  Around  the  entrance  of  the  oesophagus  are  disposed 
three  minute  cartilaginous  teeth,  imbedded  in  a  strong  cir- 
cle of  muscular  fibres.  Each  tooth  has  somewhat  of  a  semi- 
circular form,  and,  when  accurately  examined  with  a 
microscope,  is  found  to  have  its  free  margin  surmounted 
with  minute  denticulations  so  as  to  resemble  a  small 
semicircular  saw  (Jig.  77).  On  watching  a  leech  atten- 
tively during  the  process  of  biting,  the  action  of  these 
teeth  is  at  once  evident ;  for,  as  the  skin  to  which  the 
sucker  is  adherent  is  rendered  quite  tense,  the  sharp  Fig.  77. 

serrated  edges  of  the  teeth  are  pressed  firmly  against  it,  TOOTH  OF  A  LEECH. 
and,  a  sawing  movement  being  given  to  each  cartilagi- 
nous piece  by  the  strong  contractions  of  the 
muscular  fibres  around  the  neck,  these  in- 
struments  soon  pierce  the  cutis  to  a  consider- 
able depth,  and  lay  open  the  cutaneous  ves- 
sels, from  which  the  creature  sucks  the  fluid 
which  its  instinct  prompts  it  to  seek  after 
with  so  much  voracity.  The  position  of  the 
teeth  around  the  opening  of  the  mouth,  as 
represented  in  the  annexed  figure  (78),  will 
at  once  explain  the  cause  of  the  tri-radiate 
form  of  the  incision  which  a  leech-bite  in- 
variably exhibits." — T.  Rymer  Jones. 

The  use  of  leeches  is  so  general  in 
the   practice   of  medicine,   that   they 
have  become  an  important  object  in                  p. 
commerce.     They  are  imported  from    HEAD  OF  A  LEECH  MAGNIFIED. 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  other  countries 

13.  What  are  the  habits  of  sucking  Anne'lidans  ? 


88 


DORSIBRANCHIATA TUBICOLA. 


in  Europe.  They  are  preserved  for  a  long  time  by  packing  them 
in  moist  earth  or  mud.  On  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  they 
bury  themselves  in  mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds,  and  pass  the  win- 
ter in  a  state  of  lethargy,  and  regain  their  activity  in  the  spring. 

14.  The  ORDER  OF  DORSIBRANCHIATA  or  erratic  Annelidans 
are  the  most  complicated  in  their  organization  of  all  animals  of 

this  class.  The  head  is  almost  always  distinct  from 
the  body,  and  is  provided  with  a  certain  number  of 
antennae  ;  we  see  there  also  one  or  two  pairs  of  eyes, 
in  form  of  black  or  variously  coloured  spots  (fig.  79). 
The  mouth  is  provided  with  a  protractile  trunk,  the 
length  of  which  is  sometimes  very  considerable,  and 
at  its  extremity  we  often  find  two  or  more  pairs  of 
horny  jaws.  Generally,  on  each  side  of  the  neck 
there  is  a  certain  number  of  tentacular  cirri,  append- 
ages analogous  to  antenna3,  and  each  ring  has 
attached  to  it  a  pair  of  legs,  varying  in  structure  in 
the  different  genera :  they  are  often  composed,  each 
of  two  tubercles,  one  placed  on  the  dorsal,  and  the 
other  on  the  ventral  arch  of  the  ring,  and  studded  on 
top  with  a  packet  of  setse.  Nothing  can  exceed  the 
splendour  of  the  colours  which  ornament  some  of 
these  fasciculi  of  hairs ;  they  yield,  indeed,  in  no 
respect  to  the  most  gorgeous  tints  of  tropical  birds  or 
the  brilliant  decorations  of  insects :  green,  yellow, 
and  orange, — blue,  purple,  and  scarlet, — all  the  hues 
'EUNICE.'  of  the  rainbow  play  upon  them  with  the  changing 
light,  and  shine  with  the  metallic  effulgence  only 
comparable  to  that  which  adorns  the  breast  of  the  humming- 
bird. 

15.  These  anne'lidans  walk  and  swim  very  well,  but  neverthe- 
less, commonly  live  under  stones,  among  shells,  or  buried  in  the 
sand  ;  a  kind  of  mucus  which  exudes  from  them  forms  a  tubular 
sheath  which  they  inhabit.     They  all  live  in  the  sea. 

The  ARENICOLA,  the  APHRO'DITA,  the  EU'NICE,  &c.,  are  some 
of  the  genera. 

16.  The  ORDER  OF  TUBICOLA  comprises  anne'lides  which  have 
no  distinct  head,  nor  jaws,  nor  eyes,  nor  antennae,  but  the  anterior 
extremity  of  the  body  is  furnished  with  a  great  number  of  ap- 
pendages, some  of  which  constitute  bran'chise,  and  others  for  the 
prehension  of  food,  or  for  locomotion.     Their  legs  are  but  slightly 
projecting,  and  only  assist  them  in  rising  or  descending  in  the 

14.  What  are  Ihe  characters  of  dorsibranch  anne'lidans  ? 

15.  What  are  the  habits  of  dorsibranch  anne'lidans  ? 

16.  How  is  the  order  of  Tubicola  characterized? 


SERPULJE.—SABELL.E. 


89 


tube  they  inhabit ;  most  of  them  neither 
walk  nor  swim,  and  those  that  drag  them- 
selves along,  do  it  by  the  assistance  of 
the  long  tentacles  surrounding  the  mouth. 
The  tube  varies  in  texture,  in  different 
species.  Sometimes  it  is  formed  by  agglu- 
tinating foreign  substances,  such  as  grains 
of  sand,  small  shells,  or  fragments  of  vari- 
ous materials,  by  means  of  a  secretion, 
which  exudes  from  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  hardens  into  a  tough  membranous 
substance,  as  is  the  case  of  Terebetta 
medusa,  which  constructs  its  «tube  by 
cementing  together  minute  shells,  and  other 
small  bodies.  There  is  no  muscular  con- 
nection between  these  animals  and  the 
tubes  they  inhabit,  so  that  the  creature  can 
be  readily  withdrawn  from  its  residence. 

17.  In  this  order  are  placed  the  SER- 
PULJE,  which  live  in  calcareous  tubes,  vari- 
ously contorted  ;  the  anterior  extremity  of 
the  body  is  adorned  by  a  crown  of  ap- 
pendages like  plumes  :  these  animals  are 
found  adhering  to  oysters  and  other  mol- 
lusks.  They  are  frequently  found  encrusting  the  surface  of 
stones,  or  other  bodies,  which  have  been  immersed  for  any  length 
of  time,  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  they  are  closed  at  one  end, 
and  from  the  opposite  extremity  the  head  of  the  worm  is  occa- 
sionally protruded  in  search  of  nourishment.  The  SABELLJD  also 
belong  to  this  order.  They  inhabit  a  tube,  which  is  most  com- 
monly composed  of  granules  of  clay  or  mud,  and  is  rarely  cal- 
careous (Jig.  80).  The  Dentalium,  Terebella,  Amphitrite,  and 
Syphostoma,  are  other  genera  of  the  order  of  Tubicola. 


Fig.  80. — SABELLA. 


17.  What  arc  serpulee  ?     What  are  sabellse  ? 


90  ZOOPHYTES. 


FOURTH  BRANCH  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 
ZO'OPHYTES  OR  RADIATA. 

LESSON  IX. 

ZO'OPHYTES. — Organization — Division. 

CLASS  OF  INFUSO'RIA  ROTATO'RIA. 

CLASS    OF    ENTOZO'A.  —  Division  —  Filia'ria  —  Asca 'rides  — 

Tce'nia. 

CLASS  OF  INFUSO'RIA  PoLyGAs'TRicA. 
CLASS  OF  ECHINODER'MATA. — Sea-stars. 
CLASS  OF  ACALE'PHA. — Medusa. 
CLASS  OF  POLYPI. — Coral — Coral-reefs — Hydra — Sponges. — 

Geographical  Distribution  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

The  animals  placed  in  the  fourth  and  last  great  division  of  the 
animal  kingdom  possess  an  organization  much  less  complicated 
and  consequently  much  less  perfect  than  that  of  the  creatures  we 
have  studied  in  the  preceding  parts  of  our  series. 

1.  In  the  higher   animals  the  body  always   consists  of  two 
similar  halves;  all  the  external  organs  are  arranged  on  each  side 
of  the  middle  line,  in  pairs ;  whenever  there  is  an  organ  on  one 
side,  a  similar  one  is  found  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the  superior 
and  inferior   surfaces  of  the   body  differ  from  each  other.     In 
Zo'ophytes,  on  the  contrary,  this  symmetry  is  seldom  found  :  in 
general,  the  different  organs  are  placed  around  the  axis  or  centre 
of  the  body,  so  as  to  give  it  a  radiated  form.     Sometimes  this 
arrangement  is  carried  so  far  that  the  animal  resembles  a  star 
(Jig-  85) ;  and  in  a  great  many  of  these  creatures,  the  body  resem- 
bles an  expanded  flower  (figs.  87  and  88).     Many  of  them  live 
fixed  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  united  to  each  other  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  wear  the  appearance  of  branching  shrubs,  and  this 
external  analogy  to  certain  plants  is  so  great,  that    for  a  long 
time  these  animals  were  confounded  with  marine  plants,  and  even 
now  that  we  know  how  much  their  structure,  as  well  as  their 
functions,  differ  from  those  of  vegetables,  we  cannot    assign  to 
them  a  more  appropriate  name  than  Zoophytes  (from  the  Greek, 
zoon,  animal,  and  phuton,  plant)  or  plant-animals. 

2.  In  these  animals  the  nervous  system  is  entirely  wanting,  or 
is  found  in  an  extremely  rudimentary  state :  they  have  no  special 

1.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  Radiate  animals  ? 

2.  What  is  the  character  of  the  nervous  system  in  Zo'ophytes  ? 


INFUSORIA  ROTATORIA.— HYDATINE. 


91 


organs  of  the  senses,  except  perhaps  their  tentacles,  which  may 
serve  them  for  the  sense  of  touch. 

3.  Most  Zoophytes  are  also  destitute  of  blood-vessels,  and  they 
have  no  special  organs  of  respiration,  this  function  being  per- 
formed by  the  whole  surface  of  the  body.  Some  of  them  have 
a  mouth  armed  with  teeth,  a  digestive  canal  and  anus ;  but  in 
others,  the  digestive  cavity  has  a  single  opening,  which  serves  at 
the  same  time  both  for  mouth  and  anus. 

'  4.  This  Branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  is  divided  into  six 
classes  ;  namely,  Infuso'ria  rotato'ria,  JEntozo'a,  Infuso'ria  poly- 
gas' trica,  Echinoder 'mata,  Acale'pha,  and  Polypi. 

CLASS  OF  INFUSO'RIA.  ROTATO'RIA. 

5.  These  creatures  are  so  extremely  small,  that  prior  to  the 
discovery  of  the  microscope,  tlieir  existence  was  not  even  sus 
pected,  and  yet  their  structure  appears  to  be  as  complicated  as 
any  other  animal  of  the  same  branch. 

Although  the  instruments  by  means  of 
which  they  were  observed,  caused  them 
to  appear  to  -be  two  or  three  hundred 
times  larger  than  they  really  are,  no 
distinct  organ  was  discovered  in  them, 
and  for  a  long  time  they  were  regarded 
as  creatures  composed  of  a  kind  of 
animated  jelly  only,  which  lived  by  im- 
bibition. But  the  researches  of  some 
modern  naturalists, especially  Professor 
Ehrenburg,  of  Berlin,  have  shown  how 
much  we  were  mistaken  in  regard  to 
these  animalcules;  and  we  are  aston- 
ished, not  by  the  simplicity  of  their 
structure,  but  by  their  complicated 
microscopic  organization. 

6.  These  animalcules  are  found  in 
stagnant  waters,  and  also  in  water  in 
which    animal    substances    have    been 
soaked.     Their  body  is  partially  trans- 

Explanalion  of  Fig.  81. — Anatomy  of  a  Hydatine,  a  microscopic  animal- 
cule, resembling  a  rotifer  : — a,  the  vibratory  cilia  ; — 6,  a  fleshy  mass  which 
surrounds  the  mouth  and  sets  the  jaws  in  motion  ;  —  c,  the  stomach  ;  —  rf, 
cloaca  ; — e,  anus  ;— /,  salivary  glands  ; — g,  ovaries  ; — A,  vessels. 

3.  How  do  Zoophytes  breathe  ? 

4.  How  is  the  Branch  of  Zoophytes  divided  ? 

5.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  rotatory  Infuso'riae  ? 

6.  Where  are  these  animalcules  found? 


Fig.    81. HYDATINE. 


92  ENTOZOA.— FILIARIA. 

parent,  and  frequently  presents  traces  of  annular  divisions. 
The  mouth  occupies  its  anterior  extremity,  and  on  each  side,  or 
around  it,  are  seen  the  vibratory  cilise  (Jig.  81,  a),  the  rotatory 
movements  of  which  are  very  remarkable.  The  mouth  is  fur- 
nished with  powerful  muscles  and  lateral  jaws.  The  digestive 
canal  extends  from  one  end  of  the  body  to  the  other,  and  ordi- 
narily has  an  enlargement  near  the  middle  which  constitutes  the 
stomach  (c) ;  on  each  side  of  this  tube  are  frequently  seen  bodies 
of  a  glandular  appearance,  and  at  its  posterior  extremity  a  sort 
of  cloaca  into  which  the  oviducts  empty. 

CLASS  OF  ENTOZO'A. 

7.  This  division  comprises  intestinal  worms  and  other  inferior 
animals  of  similar  organization.     Intestinal  worms  bear  a  closer 
resemblance  to  anne'lidans  than  to  ordinary  radiate  animals.    The 
body  is  elongated  and  composed  of  more  or  less  distinct  rings ; 
there  is  often  a  digestive  canal,  sometimes  vesse.s,  but  never  a 
distinct  circulation  or  special  organs  of  respiration. 

8.  Most  of  these  singular  creatures  can  live  only  in  the  bodies 
of  other  animals,  and  lodge  themselves  in  the  substance  of  the 
liver,  in  the  eyes,  in  the  cellular  tissue,  in  the  muscles,  and  even 
in  the  brain,  as  well  as  in  the  alimentary  canal ;  we  know  they 
are  multiplied  by  means  of  eggs,  and  also  that  their  young  are 
in  some  instances  born  alive,  but  we  do  not  understand  by  what 
means  they  are  transmitted  from  one  animal  to  another,  nor  how 
they  penetrate  into  the  substance  of  organs  in  which  they  are 
developed.     There  is  scarcely  an  animal  that  does  riot  nourish 
many  kinds  of  them,  and  those  found  in  one  species  are  rarely 
found  in  many  others. 

9.  This  class  is  divided  into  two  orders :    one  in  which  the 
intestinal  canal  floats  free  in  the  cavity  of  the   abdomen,  and 
therefore  denominated  cavita'rig,  ;  the  other  is  named  parenchy'- 
mata,  because  the  animalcules  of  this  order  have  neither  abdo- 
men   nor   intestine   distinct  from  the  neighbouring   parts,  their 
digestive  cavity  consisting  of  ramified  canals  hollowed  out  in  the 
substance   of  the   body,   and   generally  opening   externally  by 
suckers. 

10.  To  the  first  division  belong  the  FILIA'RI^E  ;  they  have  a 
slender,  filiform  body ;  several  species  are  known,  which  live  in 
the  substance  of  the  organs  of  many  animals.     One  of  these  is 
the  Guinea-warm  ;  it  lodges  itself  beneath  the  skin  of  man,  and 

7.  What  description  of  animals  belong  to  the  class  of  Entozo'a  ? 
8    Where  are  these  animals  found  ? 
9.  How  is  the  class  of  Entozo'a  divided  ? 
10.  What  are  filia'riae  ?     What  are  asca'rides  ? 


TAPE-WORMS. 


93 


is  very  common  in  warm  countries.    ASCA'RIDES,  which  are  found 
in  the  intestines  of  man,  also  belong  to  this  division.     One  species, 
the  lu?n' bricus,  sometimes  attains  to  fifteen  inches  in  length. 
11.  To  the  second  division,  parenchy' mata>  belongs  the  tape- 


i-.  82. 


Fig.  83. TJENIA TAPE-WORM. 


worm  ( Tce'nid).  The  body  is  terminated  anteriorly  by  a  small 
head  (fg.  83,  a),  having  two  or  four  pits,  and,  frequently,  one  or 
more  proboscis-like  appendages ;  but  the  mouth  is  very  indistinct, 
and  the  digestive  apparatus  is  generally  reduced  to  a  double 
longitudinal  vessel  (jig.  82).  The  body  is  ordinarily  flat,  very 
long,  and  divided  into  a  great  many  more  or  less  distinct  joints 
(Jig.  83).  Each  segment  or  ring  has  one  or  two  pores  which 


communicate  with  the 


longitudinal 


vessels,  and  contains  a  dis- 


Explanation  of  Fig.  82.  —  A  ring  or  segment  of  a  tsenia,  magnified,  show- 
ing the  ovaries  ;  —  o,  the  two  longitudinal  vessels  and  the  lateral  pore  ;  —  ft,  a 
segment  from  which  almost  the  whole  ovary  has  been  removed. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  83.  —  Represents  the  ribbon-like  body  of  the  tape. 
worm  and  the  lateral  vessels  running  through  its  whole  length  on  each 
side  ;  —  a,  the  head. 


11.  How  are  tape-  worms  characterized?     Where  are  they  found  ? 


94  INFUSORIA  POLYGASTRICA. 

tinct  ovary  (Jig.  82,  a).  The  body  of  this  creature  consists  of  a 
great  number  of  these  segments,  united  together  in  a  linear  series 
(Jig.  83) :  the  segments  which  immediately  succeed  to  the  head 
(a)  are  very  small,  and  so  fragile  that  it  is  rarely  this  part  of  the 
animal  is  procured  in  a  perfect  state;  they  gradually  however 
increase  in  size  towards  the  middle  of  the  body.  Each  segment 
of  the  tape-worm  may  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  animal,  for  it 
possesses  the  means  of  reproducing  itself;  yet  the  alimentary 
tubes  are  common  to  them  all,  those  of  each  joint  freely  com- 
municating with  the  nutritive  canals  of  the  adjoining  segments. 
The  first  joint  of  the  Tse'nia,  which  may  be  called  its  head,  differs 
materially  in  structure  from  all  the  rest;  it  is  in  fact  converted 
into  an  apparatus  by  means  of  which  the  entire  animal  derives 
its  nourishment.  This  part,  when  highly  magnified,  is  found  to 
be  somewhat  of  a  square  shape;  in  the  centre  is  seen -the  mouth, 
surrounded  with  a  circle  of  minute  spines,  so  disposed  as  to 
secure  its  retention  in  a  position  for  imbibing  the  chyle  in  which 
it  is  immersed.  Around  this  mouth  are  placed  four  suckers. 
Tape-worms  infest  all  classes  of  animals,  and  commonly  inhabit 
the  small  intestine.  Their  presence  in  the  alimentary  canal 
generally  causes  debility  and  wasting  of  the  body,  and  often 
very  serious  disturbance.  The  species  which  attacks  man,  "  the 
solitary  worm,"  is  very  difficult  to  get  rid  of. 

We  also  place  in  this  division  certain  very  singular  animals, 
which  resemble  a  little  bladder  filled  with  water ;  they  grow  in 
different  parts  of  the  bodies  of  animals,  and  are  called  Hydatids. 
They  are  the  cause  of  considerable  disturbance  and  serious  dis- 
eases. 

12.  INFUSO'RIA  POLYGAS'TRICA. — These  animalcules  can  only 
be  perceived  by  means  of  the  microscope ;  they  are  abundantly 
developed  in  water  containing  the  remains  of  organic  bodies ; 


6  31 

Fig.  84. POLYAGASTRIC    INFUSORIA. 


12.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  polygastric  infuso'ria  ? 


ECHINODERMATA — SEA-STARS.  95 

until  within  a  few  years  they  were  confounded  with  the  infuso'ria 
rotato'ria,  the  structure  of  which  is  very  different.  Their  body, 
sometimes  round,  sometimes  long  and  flat,  is  often  covered  with 
little  cilise,  and  contains  ordinarily  a  considerable  number  of 
cavities,  which  seem  to  discharge  the  functions  of  so  many 
stomachs.  The  above  figure  will  give  an  idea  of  the  most  com- 
mon species  of  these  creatures.  The  movements  of  the  poly- 
gastrica,  when  seen  under  the  microscope,  are  exceedingly  viva- 
cious  ;  and  although  many  of  them  inhabit  a  space  not  larger 
than  the  point  of  a  needle,  they  swim  about  with  great  activity, 
avoiding  each  other  as  they  pass  in  their  rapid  dance,  and 
evidently  directing  their  motions  with  wonderful  precision  and 
accuracy. 

13.  The  ECHINODER'MATA  or  Echi'noderms  (from  the  Greek, 
echinus,  a  hedge-hog,  and  derma,  skin)  are  formed  for  crawling 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  are  ordinarily  provided  with  a  mul- 
titude of  retractile  appendages,  by  means  of  which  they  attach 
themselves  to  bodies  they  touch ;  in  general  the  skin  is  covered 
with  spines,  and  their  organization  is  more  complicated  than  that 
of  most  Zoophytes.  They  often 
possess  a  kind  of  skeleton,  vessels 
for  circulation,  special  organs  for 
respiration,  and  a  separate  intes- 
tinal canal  furnished  with  two 
openings. 

14.  The    sea-stars  —  Asteria 
(Jig>  85) — belong  to  this  division. 
Also,  the  sea  hedge-hogs  or  sea 
eggs,  which  have  the  appearance 
of  balls  covered  with    spines ;   in 

some  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  Fig,  85.— SEA-STAR. 

they  are  used  for  food. 

15.  The  ACALE'PHA  or  Acale'phans  (from  the  Greek,  acalephe, 
a  nettle),  commonly  called  sea-nettles,  on  account  of  the  irritation 
contact  with   them   produces    on    the    skin,  are  of  a  gelatinous 
consistence;    they  always  float  on  the  sea,  and  are  essentially 
organized    for    swimming.     Their  organization  is  very  simple; 

Explanation  of  Fig.  84. — Infu'soria  polygas'trica  as  seen  under  a  micro- 
scope ; — 1,  monad  ; — 2,  trachelius  anas; — 3,  enchelis  or  flask  animalcule  ;— 
4,  paramecium  ; — 5,  kolpoda ; — 6,  trachelius  fasciolarius  as  seen  walking  on 
microscopic  plants. 

13.  What  are  the  characters  of  echi'noderms  ? 

14.  What  are  sea-stars  ? 

15.  How  are  acale'phans  characterized?      What  are  the  characters  <&' 
medusae  ? 


96 


MEDUSA — POLYPI. 


Fig.  86. — MEDUSA. 


a  their  internal  organs  consist  almost 
exclusively  of  a  stomach,  hollowed 
in  the  substance  of  the  body,  from 
which  arise  different  branched  canals. 
The  Medusa  belong  to  this  class. 
The  body  is  broad,  and  more  or  less 
convex,  resembling  a  disk  or  the  cap 
of  a  mushroom  (Jig.  86,  a).  The 
margin  and  centre  of  the  cap  are 
furnished  with  tentacles  (6),  which 
probably  serve  them  to  seize  small 
mollusks  or  zoophytes,  and  convey 
them  to  the  mouth.  They  swim  by 
slowly  contracting  the  margin  of  the 
cap,  and  thus  expelling  the  water 
contained  in  its  concavity ;  they  are 
seldom  seen  on  the  surface  except 
in  calm  weather.  Many  of  these 
animals  contribute  to  the  phos- 
phorescence of  the  sea,  diffusing  a  whitish  light. 

16.  CLASS  OF  POLYPI. — Under  the  name  of 
polypi  is  included  a  great  number  of  animals, 
possessing  a  cylindrical  or  oval  body,  with  an 
opening  at  one  of 
its  extremities,  sur- 
rounded   by    long 
tentacles  (Jig.  87). 
The   structure    of 
polypi  is  very  sim- 
ple, and  their  facul- 
ties   very    limited. 
Most  of  them  live 

fixed  to  other  bodies,  by  the  posterior 
extremity,  and  all  their  movement 
consists  in  extending  and  contracting 
their  tentacles,  and  drawing  the  an- 
terior portion  of  the  body  into  itself. 
They  are  multiplied  in  two  ways : 
sometimes  they  produce  eggs,  which 
detach  themselves,  and  are  expelled, 
and  their  development  is  left  to  chance; 
at  other  times,  buds  spring  from  the 
surface  of  the  body,  which  never 
separate,  but  become  so  many  new 


Fig.  87. — ACTINIA. 


Fig.  88.— SERTULARIA. 


16.  What  are  polypi ?     What  are  their  characters? 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  POLYPI.  97 

polypi,  similar  to  the  parent;  hence  result  masses  of  various 
form,  in  which  an  entire  series  of  generations  are  aggregated, 
and  seem  to  possess  a  life  in  common,  just  as  if  it  were  really  a 
compound  creature,  provided  with  a  single  body,  possessing  a 
thousand  mouths,  and  as  many  stomachs  (fig.  88).  In  general 
the  digestive  cavities  of  all  these  aggregated  animals,  living  thus 
in  society,  do  not  open  directly  into  each  other,  but  commonly 
there  are  vascular  communications  between  the  individuals  united 
in  a  single  mass,  and  the  alimentary  matter  digested  by  one  may 
in  this  way  be  of  advantage  to  all  its  neighbours. 

17.  Frequently  the  bodies  of  these  little  animalcules  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  a  semi-transparent  tissue  of  extreme  delicacy  ; 
but  in  most  of  them  the  inferior  portion  of  the  tegumentary  sheath 
becomes  much  indurated,  and  even  ossified  so  as  to  acquire  the 
hardness  and  appearance  of  stone.     This  solid  envelop  assumes 
various  forms,  and  sometimes  constitutes  tubes,  and  sometimes 
merely  cells ;  for  a  long  time  it  was  considered  merely  as  the 
dwellings  of  the  polyps  which  formed  it,  and  is  designated  under 
the  name  of  coral.     Sometimes  every  polyp  has  a  distinct  coral, 
but  ordinarily  it  is  the  portion  common  to  an  aggregated  mass  of 
polyps    that    possesses    the    characteristics  of  these   bodies,  the 
volume  of  which  may  become  enormous,  although  each  of  the 
parts  forming  it  is  extremely  small. 

18.  It  is  in  this  way  that  polyps  of  only  a  few  inches  in  length 
raise  reefs  and  islands  in  seas  bordering  the  tropics ;  when  placed 
under    circumstances  favourable    to    their    development,   certain 
animals  of  this  class  multiply  to  such  a  degree  as  to  cover  chains 
of  rocks  or  immense  submarine  banks,  and  form,  with  their  stony 
corals  heaped  one  upon   another,  masses  whose   extent  is  con- 
stantly increasing  by  the  birth  of  new  animalcules  added  to  those 
already  existing.     The  solid  slough  or  remnant  of  each  colony 
of  polyps  remains  after  the  frail  architects  have  perished,  and 
serves  as  a  base  for  the  development  of  other  polyps,  until  these 
living  reefs  reach  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  these  animals 
cease  to  exist,  and  the  soil  formed  by  their  remains  ceases  to 
rise;  but  the  surface  of  these  masses  of  corals,  exposed  to  the 
action  .of  the  atmosphere,  becomes  the  site  of  a  new  series  of 
phenomena  ;  seeds,  which  are  deposited  by  the  winds,  or  borne 
thither  by  the  waves,  germinate,  and  the  surface  of  these  coral 
masses  is  in  this  way  gradually  clothed  in  a  rich  vegetation  ;  and 
thus,  what  were  but  recently  vast  charnel-houses  of  almost  micro- 
sc  »[  ic  zo'ophytes,  are  converted  into  habitable  islands.     In  the 
Pacific  Ocean  there  are  innumerable  reefs  and  islands  which  had 
no  other  origin;  in  general  they  seem  to  be  based  on  the  crater 

1 7.  What  is  coral  ? 

18.  How  are  coral  reefs  formed  ? 

9 


98 


CORAL. 


of  some  extinct  volcano,  for  they  are  almost  always  of  a  circular 
form,  with  a  lake  in  the  centre  communicating  with  the  ocean 
by  a  single  channel :  some  are  more  than  ten  leagues  in  dia- 
meter. 

19.  Almost  all  polyps  inhabit  the  sea:   some,  however,  are 

found  in  fresh  water. 
Most  polyps  secrete  this 
stony  matter,  above 
mentioned,  in  the  cells 
of  which  they  are  lodg- 
ed, or  around  which 
they  are  grouped.  The 
stony  matter,  of  a  beau- 
tiful red  colour,  employ- 
ed as  an  ornament,  call- 
ed coral,  is  formed  in 
this  way  ;  it  is  the  stem 
found  in  the  midst  of 
an  aggregation  of  cer- 
tain polyps,  that  serves 
to  sustain  and  attach 
them  to  the  earth  (jig. 
$9).  These  tittle  ani- 
mals, onFy  two  or  three 
lines  in  length,  have  at 
their  free  extremity 
eight  tentacles,  in  the 
middle  of  which  is  the 
mouth ;  by  their  oppo- 
site extremity  they  are 
fixed  in  little  cavities  hollowed  out  in  a  kind  of  membrane  or 
living  bark,  which  is  common  to  all,  and  into  which  they  can 
entirely  withdraw  themselves  ;  this  common  part  is  more  or  less 
branched,  and  in  its  centre  are  found  successive  layers  of  very 
hard,  stony  matter,  ^vhich  is  the  coral.  This  coral  rs  found 
plentifully  in  the  Mediterranean,  principally  on  the  African  coast, 
where  it  forms  the  object  of  an  active  fishery. 

20.  Fresh-water  polyps  (fg.  90)  or  Hydrce  (from  the  Greek, 
'udar,  water)  may  be  considered  as  the  most  simple  type  of  this 
group.  The  body  is  a  gelatinous  tube,  in  which  no  particular  organ 
is  perceived ;  nevertheless  they  crawl  and  swim  actively,  by  agi- 
tating their  long  tentacles,  to  seize  small  animals  that  come  within 
their  reach,  which  they  devour  with  great  avidity ;  they  seem  to 
be  sensible  to  the  influence  of  light.  Some  of  these  polyps  have 

19.  What  is  red  coral  ?     Where  is  it  found? 

20.  What  are  hydras  ?    Where  are  they  found  ? 


Fig*  89, — CORAL. 


HYDILE.— SPONGE. 


been  turned  inside  out, 
and  yet  the  cavity  thus 
formed,  having  the  skin 
inside,  performed  the 
functions  of  the  natural 
stomach ;  but  what  is 
most  singular  and  as-  C 
tonishing  is  their  great 
tenacity  of  life,  which 
enables  them  to  live 
even  after  they  are  cut 
into  pieces,  and  each 
fragment  afterwards  be- 
comes an  entire  and  per- 
fect hydra. 

Fig.  90. — HYDROS. 

"  When  left  free,  the  hydrse  are  found  to  select  positions  most  exposed  to 
the  influence  of  light,  assembling  at  the  surface  of  the  ponds  which  they 
inhabit,  or  seeking  that  side  of  the  glass  in  which  they  are  confined,  that  is 
most  strongly  illuminated.  That  they  are  able  to  appreciate  the  presence 
of  light  is  therefore  indubitable ;  yet  with  what  organs  do  they  perceive  it  ? 
we  are  driven  to* the  supposition,  that,  in  this  case,  the  sense  of  touch  sup- 
plies to  a  certain  extent  the  want  of  other  senses,  and  that  the  hydrse  are 
able  to  feel  the  light 

"  When  the  hydra  is  watching  for  its  prey,  it  remains  expanded  (Jig.  90, 
fc),  its  tentacles  widely  spread  and  perfectly  motionless,  waiting  patiently 
till  some  of  the  countless  beings  which  populate  the  stagnant  waters  it  fre- 
quents, are  brought  by  accident  in  contact  with  them :  no  sooner  does  an 
animal  touch  one  of  the  filaments,  than  its  course  is  arrested,  as  if  by 
magic;  it  appears  instantly  fixed  to  the  almost  invisible  thread,  and  in  spite 
of  its  utmost  efforts  is  unable  to  escape  ;  the  tentacle  then  slowly  contracts, 
and  others  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  struggling  prey,  which,  thus 
seized,  is  gradually  dragged  towards  the  orifice  of  the  mouth,  that  opens  to 
receive  it,  and  slowly  forced  into  the  interior  of  the  stomach," — Jones, 

21.  SPONGES  live  in  the  sea,  attached  to  rocks:  they  bear 
some  analogy  to  the  common  mass  in  which  certain  polyps  are 
lodged,  but  we  find  none  of  these  ani- 
mals on  them.  Their  surface  is  per- 
forated by  an  immense  number  of 
holes  which  communicate  with  canals 
running  through  their  substance  in 
every  direction,  and  through  which 
currents  of  water  are  continually 
passing  (fg.  91).  Sponges  are  found 
in  a  variety  of  forms  ;  some  are  like  Fig.  91.— SPONGE. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  90. — a,  represents  small  patches  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter, floating  on  the  water,  beneath  which  hydroe  are  ordinarily  found ;  —  i, 
one  of  these  polyps ; — c,  another,  having  two  young  ones  attached  to  it 


21.  What  are  sponges?    Where  are  they  found  ? 


100  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 

horns,  spheres,  cups,  fans,  shrubs,  &c. ;  some  are  studded  with 
fine  stony  needles ;  others  are  sustained  internally  by  flexible 
fibres,  arranged  so  as  to  form  tubes  and  little  cells. 

Common  sponge,  of  which  we  make  so  much  use,  has  a  struc- 
ture of  the  latter  description  ;  it  constitutes  large  brownish  masses, 
and  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 

To  form  a  general  idea  of  the  animal  kingdom,  it  is  not  enough 
to  know  the  principal  phenomena  by  which  life  is  manifest  in 
animate  creatures,  and  1o  have  studied  the  structure  of  their 
bodies,  and  the  mechanism  of  their  functions  ;  we  must  also  look 
sit  the  manner  in  which  animals  are  distributed  over  the  face  of 
the  earth,  and  endeavour  to  appreciate  the  influence  which  the 
different  circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed  may  exercise 
over  them. 

When  we  look  at  the  manner  of  distribution  of  animals  on 
the  globe,  we  are  at  first  struck  with  the  difference  of  the  media 
they  inhabit.  Some,  as  every  body  knows,  always  live  under 
water  and  quickly  die  when  withdrawn  from  it ;  others  can  only 
exist  in  the  air  and  almost  immediately  perish  when  submerged. 
Some  in  fact  are  destined  to  inhabit  the  waters,  and  others  to  live 
upon  the  land ;  and  when  we  compare  aquatic  and  terrestrial 
animals,  in  their  physiological  and  anatomical  relations,  we  find, 
at  least  in  part,  the  causes  of  the  differences  in  their  mode  of 
existence. 

In  studying  respiration,  we  pointed  out  the  constant  relation 
between  the  intensity  of  this  function  and  vital  energy.  Animals 
consume  in  a  given  time  a  quantity  of  oxygen,  increasing  in  pro- 
portion to  the  activity  of  their  motions  and  rapidity  of  their 
nutrition  :  now,  they  can  obtain  this  oxygen  only  from  the  fluids 
surrounding  them  ;  in  a  gallon  of  air  there  are  about  84  cubic 
inches  of  this  vivifying  principle,  while  in  a  gallon  of  water  we 
ordinarily  find  only  about  five  cubic  inches.  It  is  evident  then 
that  the  degree  of  activity  in  the  respiratory  function,  indispen- 
sable to  the  exercise  of  the  faculties  belonging  to  superior  ani- 
mals, must  be  of  more  easy  attainment  in  air  than  in  water,  and 
on  account  of  this  difference  alone,  the  creatures  highest  in  the 
animal  series  cannot  dwell  in  water.  We  comprehend,  indeed, 
that  an  animal  which,  in  order  to  exist,  must  appropriate  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  oxygen  every  instant,  does  not  find  it  in  suf- 


OF  ANIMALS.  101 


ficient  quantity  when  plunged  into  water,  and  therefore  perishes 
of  asphyxia.  But  at  first  sight,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  explain  why 
an  aquatic  animal  cannot  continue  to  live  when  taken  from  tho 
water  and  placed  in  the  air,  for  then  we  supply  it  with  a  fluid 
richer  in  oxygen  than  that,  the  vivifying  action  of  which  was 
sufficient  for  ail  its  wants.  There  are,  however,  various  circum- 
stances which,  to  a  certain  degree,  explain  this  phenomenon. 
Physics  teach  us  that  a  body  carefully  weighed  in  air  and  in 
water,  is  lighter  in  the  last  than  in  the  first,  and  that,  to  sustain 
it  in  equilibrium,  there  is  then  only  required  a  weight  equal  to  its 
weight  in  air,  less  that  of  the  bulk  of  water  it  displaces.  Hence 
it  follows  that  animals  whose  tissues  are  too  soft  to  sustain  them- 
selves in  air,  and  are  compressed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become 
unfit  to  perform  their  functions  in  the  organism,  can  nevertheless 
live  very  well  in  water,  where  these  same  tissues,  being  not  much 
more  dense  than  the  surrounding  fluid,  are  required  to  possess 
only  a  feeble  power  of  resistance  to  preserve  their  forms  and  to 
prevent  the  several  parts  of  the  body  from  falling  together  on 
each  other.  This  consideration  atone  is  sufficient  to  show  us 
why  gelatinous  animals,  such  as  infusoria  or  meduscs,  are  neces- 
sarily inhabitants  of  the  water;  for,  when  we  observe  one  of 
these  delicate  creatures  while  still  in  this  fluid,  we  perceive  that 
all  the  parts,  even  the  most  slender  tissues,  are  sustained  in  their 
proper  position  and  float  easily  in  the  surrounding  medium  ;  but 
the  moment  they  are  withdrawn,  their  body  is  almost  entirely 
effaced,  offering  to  the  eye  only  a  confused  and  shapeless  mass. 
The  influence  of  the  density  of  the  surrounding  medium  upon  the 
mechanical  play  of  these  instruments  of  life  is  also  felt  in  ani- 
mals of  a  more  perfect  structure,  in  which,  however,  respiration 
is  still  carried  on  by  means  of  ramified  membranous  appendages, 
resembling  diminutive  shrub-branches  or  plumes.  For  example, 
in  anne'lidans  or  even  in  fishes,  the  branchiae  or  gills  are  com- 
posed of  flexible  filaments,  which  easily  sustain  themselves  in 
water,  and  therefore  permit  the  respirable  fluid  to  reach  and 
renew  itself  at  all  points  of  their  surface;  but,  in  air,  these  same 
membranous  filaments  are  in  a  measure  effaced  by  their  own 
weight,  falling  one  on  another,  and,  in  this  way,  exclude  the 
oxygen  from  the  greater  part  of  the  respiratory  apparatus.  It 
results  that  this  function  is  then  embarrassed,  and  the  animal  may 
die  of  asphyxia  in  the  air,  although  it  found  in  water  all  it  re 
quired  for  free  respiration.  To  convince  ourselves  of  the  impor- 
tance of  these  variations  in  the  physical  state  of  organs  placed 
in  air  or  in  water,  it  is  only  necessary  to  be  reminded  of  what  is 
seen  in  dissecting-rooms:  an  anatomist  desirous  of  studying  the 
structure  of  a  very  delicate  part,  would  succeed  very  indifferently 
if  he  made  his  dissection  in  air  j  but  by  placing  the  subject  of 


102  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 

investigation  in  water,  he  much  more  easily  succeeds  in  distin- 
guishing all  the  parts ;  because  these  parts,  sustained  in  a  mea- 
sure by  this  liquid,  then  preserve  their  natural  relations  just  as  if 
they  were  of  a  consistent  and  stiffer  tissue.  Another  circum- 
stance which  influences  the  possibility  of  living  in  air  or  in  water 
is  the  evaporation  which  always  takes  place  from  the  surface  of 
organized  bodies  placed  in  the  air,  but  which  cannot  take  place 
in  water.  A  certain  degree  of  dessication  causes  all  organic 
tissues  to  lose  their  distinguishing  physical  properties,  and  we  find 
that  losses  by  evaporation  always  produce  death  in  animals  when 
they  exceed  certain  limits.  It  follows  that  creatures  whose 
organization  is  not  calculated  to  preserve  them  against  the  injuri- 
ous effects  of  evaporation,  can  only  live  in  water  and  quickly 
perish  in  air.  Now  the  animal  -economy  is  equal  to  this  exigence 
only  when  it  possesses  a  very  complicated  structure.  In  fact,  if 
an  active  respiration  be  requisite,  the  respiratory  surface  must  be 
deeply  lodged  in  some  internal  cavity  where  the  air  can  be  renew- 
ed only  in  proportion  as  it  is  required  for  the  support  of  life.  To 
secure  this  renovation,  the  respiratory  apparatus  must  be  furnish- 
ed with  proper  motive  organs  ;  to  prevent  the  dessication  or  drying 
of  any  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  the  diffusion  of  the  liquids 
to  the  different  parts  of  the  body  must  be  easily  carried  on,  and 
there  must  be  an  active  circulation,  or  the  surface  must  be  in- 
vested by  a  tunic  or  covering  that  is  scarcely  permeable.  This 
is  so  true,  that  even  in  fishes,  yi  which  the  circulation  is  very 
complete,  although  slowly  carried  on,  and  the  capillary  net-work 
not  very  dense,  death  speedily  takes  place  in  consequence  of 
dessication  of  a  part  of  the  body,  of  the  posterior  portion,  for 
example,  even  when  this  portion  alone  is  exposed  to  the  air,  while 
the  rest  of  the  animal  remains  under  water. 

We  may  add,  too,  that  in  water,  feeding  may  be  effected  with 
less  perfect  instruments  of  prehension  than  in  air,  where  the 
transportation  of  the  food  required  by  the  animal  is  more  difficult. 
In  all  its  most  essential  relations,  life  is,  in  a  manner,  more  easily 
.maintained  in  the  midst  of  the  waters  than  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  ;  in  the  atmosphere  it  demands  more  perfect  and  more  com- 
plicated physiological  instruments :  the  water  is  the  natural  ele- 
ment of  animals  lowest  in  the  zoological  series ;  and  if  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  creation  have  succeeded  each  other  in  the  same 
order  as  the  transitory  states  through  which  every  animal  passes, 
during  the  period  of  its  development,  we  may  conclude  that  ani- 
mate creatures  first  appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  a  con- 
clusion in  accordance  with  the  observations  of  geologists  and  the 
text  of  the  Scriptures. 

In  this  manner  the  physiologist  can  account  for  the  division  of 
animals  between  the  two  geological  elements  of  the  globe,  water 


OF  ANIMALS.  103 


and  earth;  but  these  fundamental  differences  are  not  the  only, 
ones  observed  in  the  geographical  distribution  oT  animate  crea- 
tures. If  a  naturalist  familiar  with  the  fauna*  of  his  own  coun- 
try, visit  distant  regions,  he  sees,  as  he"  advances,  that  the  land 
becomes  inhabited  by  animals  new  to  his  eyes;  then  these  species 
disappear,  in  their  turn  to  give  place  to  species  equally  unknown. 

If,  after  leaving  France,  he  land  in  the  South  of  Africa,  he 
will  find  there  only  a  small  number  of  animals  similar  to  those 
he  saw  in  Europe,  and  he  will  remark  especially  the  Elephant, 
with  big  ears  ;  the  Hippopo'tamus  ;  the  Rhinoceros,  with  two  horns  ; 
the  Giraffe  ;  innumerable  herds  of  Antelopes  ;  the  Zebra  ;  the  Cape 
Buffalo,  the  widened  base  of  whose  horns  cover  the  front ;  the 
black-maned  Lion  ;  the  Chimpanzee,  which  of  all  animals  most 
resembles  man  ;  the  Cynocephalus,  or  dog- faced  Monkey  ;  Vul- 
tures of  particular  species;  a  multitude  of  birds  of  brilliant 
plumage,  strangers  to  Europe  ;  insects,  also  different  from  those 
of  the  north  ;  for  example,  the  fatal  Termite,  which  lives  in  nume- 
rous societies,  and  builds,  in  common,  its  habitation  of  earth,  which 
is  very  curious  in  its  arrangement  and  of  considerable  height. 

If  our  zoologist  leave  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  penetrate 
into  the  interior  of  the  great  island  of  Madagascar,  he  will  there 
find  a  different  fauna.  He  will  see  none  of  the  large  quadrupeds 
he  met  in  Africa ;  in  place  of  the  family  of  monkeys,  he  will 
find  other  mammals  equally  well  formed  for  climbing  trees,  but 
more  resembling  the  carna'ria,  designated  by  naturalists  under 
the  name  of  mdkis ;  he  will  meet  the  ai-ai  or  sloth,  a  most 
singular  animal,  which  appears  to  be  a  sort  of  object  of  veneration 
among  the  inhabitants,  and  partakes  of  the  nature  of  both  monkey 
and  squirrel ;  Tenrecs  (a  kind  of  hedge-hog),  small  insecti'vorous 
mammals,  which  have  spiny  backs  like  hedge- hogs,  but  do  not 
roll  themselves  in  a  ball ;  the  Came'leon,  with  forked  nose,  and 
many  curious  reptiles  not  found  elsewhere,  as  well  as  insects  not 
less  characteristic  of  that  region. 

Still  pursuing  his  route  and  arriving  in  India,  our  traveller  sees 
an  elephant  different  from  that  of  Africa  ;  oxen,  bears,  rhinoceros, 
antelopes,  stags,  different  from  those  of  Africa  and  Europe ;  the 
ourang-outang,  and  a  multitude  of  other  monkeys  peculiar  to 
those  countries  ;  the  royal  tiger,  the  argus,  the  peacock,  pheasants, 
and  an  almost  innumerable  host  of  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects, 
unknown  elsewhere. 

If  he  now  visit  New  Holland,  all  will  be  there  again  new  to 
him,  and  the  aspect  of  this  fauna  will  appear  to  him  still  more 
strange  than- the  various  zoological  populations  he  has  passed  in 

*  Fan'na,  from  the  Latin,  faunus,  the  name  of  a  rural  deity  among  the 
Romans.  The  animals  of  all  kinds  peculiar  to  a  country  constitute  its 
Fauna. 


104  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 

review.  He  wi4l  no  longer  meet  with  species  analogous  to  our 
oxen,  horses,  bears,  and  large  carna'ria ;  large-sized  quadrupeds 
are  almost  entirely  wanting;  he  will  find  kangaroos,  flying- 
phalangers,  and  the  ornithoryn'chus. 

Finally,  if  our  traveller,  to  get  back  to  his  own  country,  tra- 
verses the  vast  continent  of  America,  he  will  discover  a  fauna 
analogous  to  that  of  the  old  world,  but  composed  almost  entirely 
of  different  species  ;  he  will  there  see  monkeys  with  a  prehensile 
tail,  large  carna'ria.  similar  to  our  lions  and  tigers,  bisons,  lamas, 
armadillos ;  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects,  equally  remarkable,  and 
equally  new  to  him. 

Differences  not  less  great  in  the  species  of  animals  peculiar  to 
different  regions  of  the  globe,  are  observed,  when,  instead  of  con- 
fining our  observations  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  land,  we  examine 
the  myriads  of  animated  creatures  that  dwell  in  the  midst  of  the 
waters.  Passing  from  the  coasts  of  Europe  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  from  the  latter  into  the  American  seas,  we  meet  with  fishes, 
mollusks,  crusta'ceans,  and  zoophytes,  peculiar  to  each  of  these 
regjons.  This  limitation  or  colonization  of  species,  whether 
aquatic  or  terrestrial,  is  so  marked,  that  a  slightly  experienced 
naturalist  cannot  mistake,  even  at  first  sight,  the  original  localities 
of  zoological  collections  that  may  have  been  gathered  in  one  or 
the  other  of  the  great  geographical  divisions  of  the  globe,  and 
submitted  to  his  examination.  The  fauna  of  each  of  these  divi- 
sions is  peculiar  to  it,  and  may  be  easily  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  certain  more  or  less  remarkable  species. 

Naturalists  have  formed  many  theories  to  account  for  this  mode 
of  distribution  of  animals  over  the  surface  of  the  globe  ;  but,  in 
the  present  state  of  science,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  satisfactory 
explanation,  without  admitting  that,  in  the  beginning,  the  different 
species  had  their  origin  in  the  different  regions  where  they  are 
found,  and  that  by  degrees  they  afterwards  spread  afar  and  occu- 
pied a  more  or  less  considerable  portion  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  In  short,  the  presence  of  a  particular  animal  within  nar- 
row limits  on  the  earth,  necessarily  supposes,  when  this  animal 
is  found  nowhere  else,  that  it  had  its  origin  on  this  spot,  or  that 
it  imigrated  there  from  a  more  or  less  remote  region,  and  that 
subsequently  it  was  entirely  destroyed  where  its  race  commenced, 
that  is,  exactly  at  the  place  where,  according  to  every  probability, 
all  circumstances  most  favourable  to  its  existence  were  found  in 
combination.  There  is  nothing  strongly  in  favour  of  this  last 
hypothesis,  and  it  is  repugnant  to  common  sense  to  believe  that, 
in  the  beginning,  the  same  country  saw  the  birth  of  the  horse, 
the  giraffe,  bison,  and  kangaroo,  for  instance,  but  that  these  ani- 
mals left  it  afterwards,  without  leaving  any  trace  of  their  pas- 
sage, to  colonize,  one  on  the  steppes  of  central  Asia,  another  in 


OF  ANIMALS.  105 


the  interior  of  Africa,  a  third  in  the  New  World,  and  another  again 
in  the  great  islands  of  Australia.  It  is  much  more  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  every  species  was  placed,  from  the  beginning,  by  the 
Author  of  all  things,  in  the  region  where  it  was  destined  perma- 
nently to  live,  and  that  by  extending  from  a  certain  number  of 
these  distinct  centres  of  creation,  different  animals  have  spread 
throughout  tfoose  portions  of  the  globe  now  forming  the  domain 
of  each  kind.  In  the  present  condition  of  the  earth,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  recognise  all  those  zoological  centres :  for  we  can  con- 
ceive the  possibility  of  exchanges  so  multiplied  between  two 
regions,  the  faunrc  of  which  were  primitively  distinct,  that  they 
present  species  common  to  both,  and  nothing  now  points  out  to 
the  eyes  of  the  naturalist  their  original  separation ;  but  when  a 
country  is  inhabited  by  a  considerable  number  of  species  which 
are  not  seen  elsewhere,  even  where  local  circumstances  are  most 
similar,  we  are  warranted  in  the  supposition  that  this  region  was 
the  theatre  of  a  peculiar  zoological  creation,  and  we  must  regard 
it  as  a  distinct  region. 

What  the  naturalist  should  ask,  is,  not  how  different  portions 
of  the  earth  have  come  now  to  be  inhabited  by  different  species, 
but  how  animals  could  be  so  far  extended  over  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  and  how  nature  placed  variable  limits  to  this  dissemination 
according  to  species.  The  latter  question  especially  presents 
itself  to  the  mind  when  we  consider  the  unequal  extent  now  occu- 
pied by  this  or  that  group  of  animated  creatures  :  for  example, 
the  ourang-outang  is  confined  to  the  island  of  Borneo  and  the 
neighbouring  lands  ;  the  musk-ox  is  colonized  in  the  most  northern 
part  of  America,  and  the  lama  in  the  elevated  regions  of  Peru 
and  Chile,  while  the  wild-duck  is  seen  everywhere,  from  Lapland 
to  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  from  the  United  States  to  China 
and  Japan. 

The  circumstances  which  favour  the  dissemination  of  species 
are  of  two  kinds  :  the  one  pertains  to  the  animal  itself,  and  the  other 
is  foreign  to  it.  Among  the  first  is  the  development  of  the  loco 
motive  power,  all  things  being  equal  in  other  respects  ;  the  species 
which  live  attached  to  the  earth,  or  which  possess  only  imperfect 
instruments  of  locomotion,  occupy  a  very  limited  extent  of  the 
earth's  surface,  compared  to  those  species  whose  moving  powers 
are  rapid  and  energetic :  among  terrestrial  animals,  birds  present 
us  with  most  examples  of  cosmopolite  species,  and,  among  aquatic 
animals,  the  ceta'ceans,  and  fishes.  Reptiles,  on  the  contrary, 
are  restricted  to  narrow  limits,  and  the  same  is  true  of  most 
mollusks  and  crusta'ceans.  The  instinct  possessed  by  certain 
animals  to  change  their  climate  periodically,  also  contributes  to 
the  dissemination  of  species ;  and  this  instinct  exists  in  a  great 
number  of  these  creatures. 


106  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 

Among  the  circumstances  foreign  to  the  animal,  and  in  a  mea- 
sure accidental,  we  place  first  the  influence  of  man  ;  and  to  illus- 
trate this  point,  a  few  examples  will  suffice.  The  horse  is  origin- 
ally from  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  and,  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery  of  America,  no  animal  of  this  species  existed  in  the 
New  World  ;  the  Spaniards  carried  it  with  them  there  not  more 
than  three  centuries  back,  and  now,  not  only  do  tfee  inhabitants 
of  this  vast  continent,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Terra  del  Fuego, 
possess  horses  in  abundance,  but  these  animals  have  become 
wild,  and  are  found  in  almost  countless  herds.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  domestic  ox  :  carried  from  the  Old  to  the  New  World, 
they  have  multiplied  there  to  such  an  extent  that  in  some  parts 
of  South  America  they  are  actively  hunted  for  their  hides  only, 
for  the  manufacture  of  leather.  The  dog  has  been  everywhere 
the  companion  of  man,  and  we  could  instance  a  great  many  ani- 
mals that  have  become  cosmopolite  by  following  us;  the  rat, 
which  appears  to  be  originally  from  America,  overran  Europe  in 
the  middle  ages,  and  is  now  met  with  even  on  the  islands  of 
Ocea'nica. 

In  some  cases,  animals  have  been  able  to  break  through  natural 
barriers,  seemingly  insurmountable,  and  spread  themselves  over 
a  more  or  loss  considerable  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
by  the  assistance  of  circumstances  whose  importance  at  first 
sight  seems  very  trifling,  such  as  the  movement  of  a  fragment  of 
ice  or  wood,  often  carried  to  considerable  distances  by  currents: 
nothing  is  more  common  than  to  meet  at  sea,  hundreds  of  miles 
from  land,  fucus  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water  and  serving 
as  a  resting-place  for  small  crusta'ceans  incapable  of  transport- 
ing themselves,  by  swimming,  far  from  the  shores  where  they 
were  born.  The  great  maritime  current,  the  gulf-stream,  com- 
mencing in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  coasts  North  America  to  New- 
foundland, then  directs  its  course  to  Iceland,  Ireland,  and  returns 
towards  the  Azores,  often  bearing  to  the  coasts  of  Europe,  trunks 
of  trees  which  were  conveyed  by  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
from  the  most  interior  parts  of  the  New  World,  to  the  sea  ;  it 
frequently  happens  that  these  masses  of  wood  are  perforated  by 
the  larvse  of  insects,  and  they  may  afford  attachment  to  the  eggs 
of  mollusks,  and  of  fishes,  &c.  Finally,  even  birds  contribute 
to  the  dispersion  of  living  creatures  over  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
and  that  too  in  a  most  singular  manner :  frequently  they  do  not 
digest  the  eggs  they  swallow,  but,  evacuating  them  at  places  far 
from  where  they  were  picked  up,  carry  to  great  distances  the 
germs  of  races  unknown  till  then  in  the  countries  where  they 
were  deposited. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  means  of  transportation  and  other 
circumstances  favouring  the  dissemination  of  species,  there  are 


OF  ANIMALS.  107 


very  few  animals  that  are  really  cosmopolites,  the  most  of  these 
creatures  being  colonized  within  limited  regions.  That  such 
should  be  the  case,  we  can  comprehend,  if  we  study  the  circum- 
stances which  may  oppose  their  progress.  But  this  study  is  far 
from  furnishing  us  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  all  cases  of 
limited  circumscription  of  a  species,  and  it  is  often  impossible  to 
divine  why  certain  animals  remain  restricted  to  a  locality,  when 
nothing  seems  to  oppose  their  propagation  in  neighbouring  situa- 
tions. 

Whatever  may  be  the  reason,  the  obstacles  to  the  geographical 
distribution  of  species  are  sometimes  mechanical,  and  at  others, 
physiological ;  among  the  first  are  seas  and  chains  of  lofty  moun- 
tains. To  terrestrial  animals  seas  of  much  extent  are  in  general 
an  impassable  barrier,  and  we  perceive,  all  things  being  equal, 
the  mixture  of  two  distinct  faunas  is  always  most  intimate  in  pro- 
portion as  the  regions  to  which  they  belong  are,  geographically, 
most  approximated,  or  in  communication  with  each  other,  by 
intermediate  lands.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  prevents  species  peculiar 
to  tropical  America,  from  extending  to  Africa,  Europe,  or  Asia ; 
and  the  fauna  of  the  New  World  is  entirely  distinct  from  that  of 
the  old  continent,  except  in  the  highest  latitudes,  towards  the 
north  pole.  But  there  the  land  of  the  two  continents  is  approxi- 
mated, America  being  separated  from  Asia  only  by  Behring's 
Straits,  and  is  connected  to  Europe  by  Greenland  and  Iceland : 
on  this  account  zoological  exchanges  can  be  more  easily  effected, 
and  we  find  there  species  common  to  both  worlds ;  for  example, 
the  white  bear,  the  reindeer,  the  castor,  the  ermine,  the  bald 
eagle,  &c.  Chains  of  lofty  mountains  also  constitute  natural 
barriers,  which  arrest  the  dispersion  of  species,  and  prevent  the 
admixture  of  faunae,  proper  to  neighbouring  zoological  regions. 
For  instance,  the  opposite  declivities  of  the  Cordillera  of  the 
Andes  are  inhabited  by  species  which  are  for  the  most  part  dif- 
ferent ;  the  insects  of  the  Brazilian  side,  for  example,  are  almost 
all  distinct  from  those  found  in  Peru  and  New  Granada. 

The  dispersion  of  marine  animals  living  near  coasts  is  pre- 
vented in  the  same  manner  by  the  geographical  configuration  of 
the  earth;  but  here  it  is  sometimes  a  continuation  of  a  long  chain 
of  land,  and  sometimes  a  vast  extent  of  open  sea,  which  opposes 
the  dissemination  of  species.  Thus  most  animals  of  the  Medi- 
terranean are  also  found  in  the  European  portion  of  the  Atlantic, 
but  they  do  not  extend  to  the  seas  of  India,  from  which  the  Medi- 
terranean is  separated  by  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  nor  can  they 
traverse  the  ocean  to  gain  the  shores  of  the  New  World. 

The  physiological  circumstances  which  tend  to  limit  the  dif- 
ferent faunae  are  more  numerous ;  and  without  doubt,  the  first  iu 
consideration  is  the  unequal  temperature  of  different  regions  of 
the  earth.  There  are  species  which  can  bear  an  intense  cold  and 


103  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION 

tropical  heat  equally  well ;  man  and  the  dog,  for  example ;  but 
there  are  others  which,  in  this  respect,  are  less  favoured  by 
nature,  and  which  do  not  flourish,  or  even  cannot  exist,  except 
under  the  influence  of  a  determined  temperature.  For  instance, 
monkeys,  which  thrive  in  tropical  regions,  alrfiost  always  die  of 
phthisis,  when  exposed  to  the  cold  and  humidity  of  our  climate; 
while  the  reindeer,  formed  to  support  the  rigours  of  the  long  and 
severe  winter  of  Lapland,  suffers  from  the  warmth  of  St.  Peters- 
burgh,  and  generally  succumbs  to  the  influence  of  a  temperate 
climate.  Hence  it  is  that,  in  a  great  number  of  cases,  the  dif- 
ference of  climate  is  alone  sufficient  to  arrest  species  in  their 
march  from  high  latitudes  towards  the  equator,  or  from  the  equa- 
torial regions  towards  the  poles.  The  influence  of  temperature, 
on  the  animal  economy,  also  explains  why  certain  species  remain 
within  a  chain  of  mountains,  without  being  able  to  extend  beyond 
it  to  analogous  localities.  We  know,  in  fact,  that  temperature 
decreases  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  land,  and  conse- 
quently, animals  that  live  at  considerable  heights  cannot  descend 
on  to  the  low  plains,  to  reach  other  mountains,  without  traversing 
countries  in  which  the  temperature  is  much  higher  than  that  of 
their  ordinary  dwelling.  The  lama,  for  example,  abounds  on  the 
pastures  of  Peru  and  Chile,  situated  at  a  height  of  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  extending  south- 
wards to  the  extremity  of  Patagonia,  but  is  not  seen  either  in 
Brazil  or  Mexico,  because  it  cannot  reach  those  countries  without 
descending  to  regions  too  warm  for  its  constitution. 

The  nature  of  the  vegetation,  and  of  the  previously  existing 
fauna,  in  a  region  of  the  globe,  also  exerts  an  influence  on  its 
invasion  by  exotic  species.  Thus,  the  dispersion  of  the  silk- 
worm is  limited  by  the  disappearance  of  the  mulberry,  beyond  a 
certain  degree  of  latitude ;  the  cochineal  cannot  spread  beyond 
the  region  in  which  the  cactus  grows;  and  the  large  carnu'ria, 
except  those  that  live  on  fishes,  cannot  exist  in  the  polar  regions, 
where  vegetable  productions  are  too  poor  to  nourish  any  consider- 
able number  of  herbi'vorous  quadrupeds. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  of  these  necessary  rela- 
tions between  the  existence  of  an  animal  spfjcies,  in  a  particular 
place,  and  the  existence  of  certain  climatic,  phytological,  or 
zoological  conditions;  but  our  limits  do  not  permit  these  details, 
and  the  considerations  we  have  already  presented,  appear  to  be 
sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  nature  has 
effected  the  dissemination  of  animal  species,  on  different  parts  of 
the  earth's  surface ;  and,  to  attain  the  end  we  proposed  to  our- 
selves in  commencing  the  subject,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  glance 
at  the  results  brought  about  by  the  different  circumstances  we 
have  just  mentioned,  that  is,  the  present  state  of  the  geographical 
distribution  of  animated  creatures. 


OF  ANIMALS.  109 


When  we  compare  with  each  other  the  different  regions  of  the 
globe,  in  respect  to  their  zoological  population,  we  are  at  first 
struck  by  the  extreme  inequality  remarked  in  the  number  of 
species.  In  one  country  we  find  a  great  diversity  in  the  form 
and  structure  of  the  animals  composing  its  fauna,  while  in  another 
place,  there  is  great  uniformity  in  this  respect ;  and  it  is  easy  to 
perceive  a  certain  relation  existing  between  the  different  degrees 
of  zoological  richness,  and  the  more  or  less  considerable  -eleva- 
tion of  temperature.  In  fact,  the  number  of  species,  both  marine 
and  terrestrial,  augments,  in  general,  as  we  descend  from  the  poles 
towards  the  equator.  The  most  remote  lands  of  the  polar  regions 
offer  little  to  the  observation  of  the  traveller  but  some  insects, 
and  in  the  glacial  seas  the  fishes  and  mollusks  are  but  little  va- 
ried ;  in  temperate  climates  the  fauna  becomes  more  numerous  in 
species  ;  but  it  is  in  tropical  regions  that  nature  has  displayed  the 
greatest  prodigality  in  this  respect,  and  the  zoologist  cannot  behold 
without  astonishment  the  endless  diversity  of  animals  that  he  there 
finds  assembled. 

It  is  also  remarked  that  there  is  a  singular  coincidence  between 
the  elevation  of  temperature  in  different  zoological  regions,  and 
the  degree  of  organic  perfection  of  the  animals  which  inhabit 
them.  It  is  in  the  warmest  climates  that  those  animals  live  that 
most  nearly  resemble  man,  and  also  those  in  the  great  zoological 
divisions  which  possess  the  most  complicated  organization,  and 
the  most  developed  faculties,  while  in  the  polar  regions  we  meet 
with  creatures  occupying  a  low  rank  in  the  zoological  series. 
Monkeys,  for  example,  are  confined  to  the  warm  parts  of  the  two 
continents ;  the  same  is  true  of  parrots  among  birds,  of  croco- 
diles and  tortoises  among  reptiles,  and  of  land-crabs  among  crus- 
ta'ceans,  all  of  them  the  most  perfect  animals  of  their  respective 
classes. 

It  is  also  in  warm  countries  that  we  find  animals  the  most 
remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  colours,  their  size,  and  the 
strangeness  of  their  forms. 

Indeed  there  seems  to  exist  a  certain  relation -between  the  cli- 
mate and  the  tendency  of  nature  to  produce  this  or  that  animal 
form.  We  observe  a  very  great  resemblance  between  most  ani- 
mals inhabiting  the  extreme  northern  and  southern  regions;  the 
fauna?  of  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
America,  are  very  analogous  in  their  general  aspect,  and  in  the 
tropical  regions  of  the  two  worlds  similar  forms  predominate.  It 
is  not  identical  species  that  we  meet  in  distinct  and  nearly 
isothermal  regions,  but  species  more  or  less  approximating  to 
each  other,  which  seem  to  be  the  representatives  of  one  and  the 
same  type.  For  example,  the  monkeys  of  India  and  of  Central 
Africa  are  represented  in  tropical  America  by  other  monkey'3 


110        GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 

easily  distinguishable  from  the  first ;  the  lion,  tiger,  and  pan- 
ther, of  the  old  continent,  correspond  to  the  cougar,  jaguar,  and 
ounce,  of  the  New  World.  The  mountains  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  America,  nourish  bears  of  distinct  species,  but  differing 
very  little  from  each  other.  Seals  abound  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  polar  circles ;  and  if  we  seek  the  proofs  of 
this  tendency,  not  among  the  highest  classes  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, but  among  the  inferior  creatures,  they  will  be  found  not  less 
evident :  cray-fishes,  for  example,  appear  to  be  confined  to  the 
temperate  regions  of  the  globe,  and  are  found  throughout  Europe, 
in  a  species  common  to  European  streams ;  in  the  South  of 
Russia,  there  is  a  different  species ;  in  North  America,  there  are 
two  species,  distinct  from  the  preceding ;  in  Chile,  there  is  a  fourth 
species;  in  the  south  of  New  Holland,  a  fifth;  in  Madagascar, 
a  sixth ;  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  seventh. 

A  comparison  of  the  faunae  peculiar  to  the  different  zoological 
regions  of  the  globe  leads  to  other  results  for  which  it  is  more 
difficult  to  account ;  when  we  examine  successively  the  assem- 
blage of  species  inhabiting  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  we  remark 
that  the  fauna  of  the  New  World  is  characterized  by  inferiority, 
a  fact  which  did  not  escape  the  celebrated  Buffon.  In  a  word, 
there  are  no  mammals  existing  now  in  the  New  World  as  large 
as  those  of  the  old ;  it  is  true,  we  find,  in  America,  a  consider- 
able number  of  monkeys,  but  among  them  there  is  none  equal  to 
the  ourang-outang,  or  chimpanzee ;  the  roden'tia  and  edenta'ta 
abound  most,  which,  of  all  ordinary  mammals,  are  the  least  intel- 
ligent. Finally,  in  America,  we  find  opossums,  animals  belong- 
ing to  an  inferior  type  of  ordinary  mammals,  which  have  no 
representative,  neither  in  Europe,  nor  Asia,  nor  Africa.  If  we 
pass  from  the  New  World  to  the  still  newer  region  of  Australia, 
we  shall  there  see  a  fauna  whose  inferiority  is  still  more  decided, 
for  there  the  class  of  mammals  is  scarcely  represented  by  the 
Marsu'pials  and  Monotre'mata. 

As  to  the  limitation  of  the  different  zoological  regions  into 
which  the  globe  is  divided,  and  the  composition  of  the  faunae 
proper  to  each,  we  cannot  treat  without  exceeding  our  limits ;  but 
we  regret  this  less,  because,  in  the  present  state  of  science,  these 
questions  are  far  from  being  settled. 

Here  we  terminate  our  zoological  studies :  for  the  object  we 
proposed  to  ourselves  was  not  a  particular  description  of  each 
animal,  nor  an  enumeration  of  those  characters  which  would 
enable  us  to  recognise  or  group  them  methodically;  we  were 
merely  desirous  of  giving  some  notion  of  the  nature  and  proper- 
ties of  th63se  creatures,  to  sketch  rapidly  the  prominent  traits  of 
their  history,  and  furnish  our  young  readers  the  general  know- 
.'edge  most  useful  to  all,  and  indispensable  to  those  who  wish  to 
study  more  profoundly  this  branch  of  the  sciences  of  observation 


GLOSSARY. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


ABDO'MEN. — From  the  Latin,  abdere, 
to  conceal.  The  belly ;  that  part 
of  the  trunk  which  contains  the 
stomach,  liver,  intestines,  &c, 

ABDO'MINAL.  —  Relating  to  the  abdo- 
men. 

ASRAN'CHIA  (a-bran'-kea).  —  In  the 
plural,  abran'chiee.  Abran'chians. 
From  the  Greek,  a,  without,  and 
bragchia,  gills.  An  order  of  anne- 
lidans,  so  called,  because  the  spe- 
cies composing  it  have  no  external 
organs  of  respiration. 

ABRAN'CHIATE. — Relating  to,  or  of  the 
nature  of  abranchia. 

ACALE'PHA. — From  the  Greek,  akale- 
phe,  a  nettte.  Class  of  radiate 
animals,  so  called,  on  account  of 
the  singular  property  possessed  by 
most  of  the  species,  of  irritating 
and  inflaming  the  skin,  when 
touched. 

ACALE'PHA. — Plural  of  acale'pha. 

ACALE'PHANS.— Animals  of  the  class 
Aetle'pha. 

ACA'RIDES. — A  tribe  of  arachnidans, 

A'CARUS. — From  the  Greek,  akari,  a 
mite.  A  genus  of  arachnidans. 

A'cARi. — Plural  of  Acarus. 

ACOU'STIC. — From  the  Greek,  akoud, 
I  hear.  "Relating  to  sound,  or 
hearing. 

A'CRID. — From  the  Latin,  acer,  sharp, 
sour.  Burning,  irritating. 

ACRY'DIUM. — From  the  Greek,  oirts, 
a  locust.  Name  of  a  genus  of  in- 
sects. 

ACTI'NIA.— From  the  Greek,  aktin,  a 
ray.  A  genus  of  polypi,  with  very 
numerous  tentacles,  which  extend, 
like  rays,  from  the  circumference 
of  the  mouth  (Jig.  87). 

ACU'LEATES.  —  From  the  Latin,  acu- 
leus,  a  prickle.  A  tribe  of  hy- 
menopterous  insects,  in  which  the 
females  and  neuters  are  provided 
with  a  sting,  generally  concealed 


within  the   last  segment   of  th« 
abdomen. 

AGGREGATED. — From  the  Latin,  ag- 
grego,  I  gather.  Collected  to- 
gether. 

AGGREGATION, — A  collection :  a  mass 
composed  of  many. 

AGGLOM'ERATKD.  —  From  the  Latin, 
ad,  to,  and  glomero,  I  heap  up. 
Gathered  into  a  ball  or  heap. 

ALIMEN'TARF.  —  Affording  nourish- 
ment. 

1  From  the  Greek,  am- 

AMPKI'PODA.  1       pltis,  on  both  sides, 

AMPHI'PODS.  j      and  pous,  foot.     An 
J      order  of  crusta'ceans. 

AMPHITRI'TK.  —  A  genus  of  anneli- 
dans. 

AMPUTA'TION. — From  the  Latin,  am- 
putare,  to  cut  off.  The  act  of  cut- 
ting off  or  removing  a  limb  or 
projecting  part 

ANA'TIFA.  —  Plural,  anatifa.  From 
the  Latin,  anas,  in  the  genitive 
case,  flwafcts,  a  duck,  and  fero,  I 
bear.  A  genus  of  cirrhopods.  It 
was  for  a  long  time  believed  that 
certain  ducks  were  derived  from 
the  metamorphosis  of  these  ani- 
mals; and  for  this  reason  they 
were  called  nna'tifa. 

~\  From  the  Latin,  anel- 
lus,  a  little  ring.     It 

ANEL'LIDA.    1       is,  also,  written  an- 

ANEI/UBES.  j       nelida^und  annelides. 
A  class  of  articulate 
J       animals. 

ANEL'LID.E.  I  Plural  of  anellida   and 

ANNE'LID^E.  £      annelida 

ANNE'UDAN. — An  animal  of  the  class 
anel'lida. 

ANIMA'LIA. — Latin.     Animals. 

AXIMA'LITY. — From  the  French,  ani- 
maliti.  The  peculiar  vitai  pro- 
perty or  character  which  belongs 
to  and  distinguishes  animals. 

— A  diminutive  animal. 
(Ill) 


112 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


ANNULAR. — In  form  of  a  ring. 

AN'NUL,US.  —  In  the  plural,  anruli. 
Latin.  A  ring. 

ANO'BIUM.  —  From  the  Greek  and, 
above,  upwards,  and  baino,  I 
ascend.  Generic  name  of  certain 
beetles. 

ANOMOU'RA.  —  From  the  Greek,  ano- 
mos,  irregular,  and  euro,  tail.  A 
division  of  crusta'ceans. 

ANTEN'NA. — Latin.  A  yard-arm.  A 
tubular,  jointed,  filiform  organ, 
placed  on  the  head  of  insects,  and 
some  other  animals.  A  feeler. 

ANTEN'NA. — Plural  of  antenna. 

ANTEPEC'TUS. — From  the  Latin,  ante, 
before,  and  pcctus,  the  breast.  The 
under  surface  of  the  first  ring  of 
the  thorax  in  insects. 

ANTESTER'NUM.  —  From  the  Latin, 
ante,  before,  and  sternum,  the 
breast-bone.  The  fore  part  of  the 
middle  line  of  the  breast-plate;  the 
centre  of  the  antepectus. 

ANTHOPHO'RA. — In  the  plural,  antho- 
phorae.  From  the  Greek,  anthos, 
a  flower,  and  phero,  I  bear.  Name 
of  a  genus  of  hyinenopterous  in- 
sects.  Applied  also  to  insects 
whose  habits  are  analogous  to 
bees. 

A'NUS. — The  outlet  or  inferior  open- 
ing of  the  intestines. 

AOR'TA.  —  The  main  artery  of  the 
body. 

AOR'TIC.  —  Belonging  to,  01  of  the 
nature  of  tiie  aorta. 

A'PHIS.  —  From  the  Greek,  aphis,  a 
plant-louse,  a  vine-fretter. 

A'PHIDES. —  Plural  of  aphis.  Plant- 
lice. 

AFHRO'DITA.  —  A  genus  of  anneli- 
dans. 

A'PIS. — Latin.     A  bee. 

APPARA'TUS. —  Latin.  Formed  from 
ad,  for,  and  parare,  to  prepare.  A 
collection  of  organs  or  instruments 
for  any  operation  whatever. 

A'PODOUS. — From  the  Greek,  a>  with- 
out, and  pous,  foot.  Without 
feet. 

AP'TERA. — From  the  Greek,  a,  with- 
out, and  pteron,  wing.  A  division 
of  insects,  characterized  by  being 
without  wings. 


AP'TEROUS. — Without  wings  ;  wing- 
less. 

AQUA'TIC.  —  Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  water. 

ARACH'NIDA  (arak'-ne-da), — From  the 
Greek,  arachne,  a  spider.  A  class 
of  articulated  animals. 

ARACH'NID^E. — Plural  of  arachriida. 

ARACH'NIDANS.  >  Animals  of  the  class 

ARACH'NIDES.    \      Arachnida. 

ARANE'IDA  (Plural,  arane'idse).  — 
From  the  Latin,  aranea,  a  spider. 
A  tribe  of  pulmonary  arach'ni- 
dans. 

ARENICO'LA  (Plural,  arenicolffi).  — 
From  the  Latin,  arena,  sand,  and 
colo,  I  inhabit.  A  genus  of  anne- 
lidans. 

AR'TERIES. — Blood-vessels,which  con- 
vey blood  from  the  heart,  to  all 
parts  of  the  body :  blood  is  carried 
back  to  the  heart,  from  all  parts 
of  the  body,  by  the  veins. 

ARTI'CULATA. — Latin.    Articulated. 

ARTI'CULATE.     i    Having     articula- 

ARTI'CULATED.   \        tions  ;  jointed. 

ARTICULA'TION. — A  joint. 

ASCA'RIDES. — A  genus  of  worms. 

ASPHYX'IA. — From  the  Greek,  a,  with- 
out, and  sphuxis,  pulsation.  State 
of  suspended  animation,  or  seem- 
ing death. 

ASSIMJLA'TION. — A  part  of  the  func- 
tion of  digestion,  by  which  the 
food,  previously  prepared  by  the 
digestive  organs,  is  converted  into 
organic  matter,  similar  to  that 
composing  the  various  animal  tis- 
sues. » 

ASTA'CUS. — Latin.     A  lobster. 

ATEU'CHUS  (a-tue-kus}. — A  genus  of 
insects. 

A'TROPOS. — Greek  name  of  one  of  the 
Fates.  A  genus  of  insects. 

AURA'TUS. — Latin.     Golden  ;  gilded. 

AUTUMNA'LIS.  —  Latin.  Autumnal. 
Belonging  to  the  autumn. 

BALA'NI. — Plural  of  balanus. 

BALA'NUS. — Latin.     A  barnacle. 

BIFID.  —  Split  into  two  points  or 
parts. 

BILIA'RY. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
bile. 

BOMBY'CES. — Plural  of  bombyx. 

BO'MBYX.  —  From  the  Greek,  ftom- 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


113 


bux,  a  silk-worm.  A  genus  of 
insects. 

BRA'CHYU'RA  (brak-e.v-ra).  —  From 
the  Greek,  brachus,  short,  and  oura, 
tu.il.  A  tribe  of  crusta'ceans. 

BRAN'CHIA  (brari -ke-a),  —  Latin.  A 
gill. 

BRAN'CHI.E.  —  Plural  of  branchia. 
Gills. 

BRANCHIAL. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  gills, 

BUC'CAL.  —  From  the  Latin,  bvcoa, 
cheek.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  cheeks, 

C^EMENTA'RIA.  —  Latin.  Belonging 
or  relating  to  mortar. 

CALCA'RECHTS, — Of  the  nature  of  lime, 

CAN'CER. — Latin.     A  crab. 

CAN'THARIS. — Latin,     A  kind  of  fly. 

CANTHA'RIDES. — Plural  of  cantharis. 

CAPIL'LARY. — Hair-like. 

CA'RAPACE,  —  The  shell  of  crusta- 
ceans, 

CA'RABI. — Plural  of  Carabus. 

CA'RABUS. — A  genus  of  insects. 

CARNA'RIA.  —  Name  of  an  order  of 
mammals, 

CARNI'VORA. —  Latin.  Carni'vorous. 
Name  of  a  class  of  insects. 

CARNI'VOROUS. — From  the  Latin,  caro, 
carnis,  flesh,  and  voro,  I  eat. 
Flesh-eating. 

CAR'TILAGE. — Gristle. 

CARTILA'GINOUS. —  Of  the  nature  of 
cartilage. 

CAU'DAI.  —  From  the  Latin,  cauda, 
tail.  Relating  to  a  tail. 

CAUS'TIC.  —  From  the  Greek,  kaid,  I 
burn.  Applied  to  substances  which 
have  the  power  of  burning  or  dis- 
organizing animal  tissue. 

CAVITA'RIA.  —  From  the  Latin,  cam- 
tas,  a  hollow,  a  cavity.  An  order 
of  Entozoa,  in  which  the  intestinal 
canal  is  contained  in  a  distinct 
abdominal  cavity. 

CE'NTIPED. — From  the  Latin,  centum, 
a  hundred,  and  pes,  foot.  A  hun- 
dred legs  ;  a  genus  of  myriapods. 

CEPIIA'LIC. — From  the  Greek,  kephale, 
head.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
tlje  head. 

CE'PHALO-THORAX. — From  the  Greek, 
kephale,  head,  and  thorax,  chest. 
Term  applied  to  that  part  of  the 
10* 


body  of  arachnidans,  composed  of 

the  head  and  thorax. 
CETA'CEANS. — An  order  of  mammals, 

which  includes  the  whale. 
CER'VUS, — Latin.     A  stag, 
CHELA. — Plural,  chelee.   Latin.  From 

the  Greek,  chele,  pincers.     A  crab's 

claw, 
CHELI'CERA, — Plural,cheliceree.  From 

the  Greek,  cheie,  pincers,  and  keras, 

horn,     A  term  applied  to  append- 

ages  on  the  head  of  arachnidans. 

}From  the  Greek,  chru- 
sos,  gold.  The  second 
stage   of   the  meta- 
morphosis of  insects. 
CHYLE  (kite). — A  nutritious  fluid,  a 
result   of   the   digestion   of   food, 
fitted  for  assimilation. 
CHYLI'FEROUS.  —  From    the    Greek, 
chulos,   chyle,   and   fero,   I   bear. 
Chyle-bearing. 

CICA'DA. — Latin.     A  grasshopper. 
CICIN'DELA. — From  the  Latin,  cicen'- 
dela,  a    glow-worm.     Name  of  a 
genus  of  beetles. 

CIL'IA.— Plural,  ciliae.     Latin.     Eye- 
lash. 

CI'MEX. — Latin.     A  bug. 
CIR'RIPED.     >  A  description  of  articu- 
CIR'RHOPOD.  s      lated  animals. 

From  the  Latin,  cir- 
rus, a  tendril,  and 
pes,  foot.  A  class 
of  articulated  ani- 
mals. 
CIR'RI.  —  Latin,  plural  of  cirrus. 

Tendrils. 

CLAVICOR'NES. — From  the  Latin,  cla- 
vus,    a    club,    and    cornu,    horn. 
Name  of  a  family  of  insects. 
CLO'ACA. — A  sewer. 
CLY'PEUS. — Latin.    A  buckler.  Name 
of  that  part  of  the  head  of  insects 
to  which  the  labrum  is  attached. 
COCCINEL'LA. — From  the  Latin,  coc- 
cinus,  crimson.     Name  of  a  genus 
of  insects. 

COCOO'N.  —  The  silken  case  which 
the  larvse  of  certain  insects  spin, 
to  cover  them  during  a  period  of 
their  metamorphosis. 
Coc'cus. — Latin.  Scarlet  cloth.  Ge- 
neric name  of  the  cochineal  hi- 
sect. 


CIR'RHOPODA. 
CIR'RIPEOA. 


114 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


COLEOP'TERA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
koleos,  a  sheath,  and  pteron,  wing. 
Name  of  an  order  of  insects. 

COLEOP'TER^E. — Plural  of  Coleop'tera. 

COLEOP'TEROUS.  —  Belonging  or  re- 
lating to  Coleop'tera. 

CO'PRIS.  —  From  the  Greek,  kopros, 
dung.  A  genus  of  insects. 

CO'RAL. —  From  the  Greek,  koreo,  I 
ornament,  and  als,  the  sea.  The 
hard  calca'reous  support,  formed 
by  certain  polypi. 

COR'NEA.  —  From  the  Latin,  cornu, 
horn.  The  transparent  part  of  the 
eye-ball. 

COR'NEA. — Plural  of  cornea. 

CORIA'CEOUS. — Leathery. 

CORSE'LET. — The  second  segment  or 
ring  of  the  body  of  insects. 

COSMO' POLITE. — From  the  Greek,  kos- 
mos,  world,  and  polls,  city.  A 
citizen  of  the  world. 

COX'A. — Latin.     Hip. 

CREPUS'CULAR. — From  the  Latin,  cre- 
puscula,  twilight.  Relating  to 
twilight. 

CRUSTA'CEA. — From  the  Latin,  crvsta, 
a  crust.  A  class  of  articulated 
animals. 

CRUSTA'CEA. — Plural  of  Crusta'cea. 

CRUST A'CEAN. —  Of  the  class  of  Crus- 
ta'cea. 

CRUSTA'CEOUS.  —  Of  the  nature,  or 
belonging  to  Crustaceans. 

CU'TICLE. — The  scarf-skin. 

CU'TIS. — Latin.  The  skin  :  the  true 
skin. 

CU'LEX. — Latin.     A  gnat. 

CY'NIPS. — A  genus  of  insects. 

DE'CAPOD. — Of  the  family  of  Deca- 
poda. 

DECAFO'DA. —  From  the  Greek,  deca, 
ten,  and  pous,  foot.  A  family  of 
Crusta'ceans. 

DEGLUTI'TION. — The  act  of  swallow- 
ing. 

DEMI-ELY'TRA.  —  From  the  French, 
de'mij  half,  and  e'lytrum.  Half- 
wing  cases. 

DENTA'LIUM. — From  the  Latin,  dens, 
a  tooth.  A  genus  of  cirrhopods. 

DEN'TATE. — Toothed. 

DENTICULA'TION.  —  A  tooth-like  pro- 
jection. 

PERMES'TES. — From  the  Greek,  der- 


ma,  skin,   and   esthio,    I   eat.     A 

genus  of  insects. 
DIA'PHANOUS.  —  From  the  Greek,  did, 

through,    and    phaino,   1    appear. 

Transparent  ;  that  which  may  be 

seen  through. 
DIP'TERA.  —  From  the  Greek,  dis,  two, 

and  pteron,  wing.     An  order  of  in- 

sects. 

DIP'TERA.  —  Plural  of  Dip'tera. 
DIP'TEROUS.  —  Relating  to  Dip'tera. 
DIUR'NAL.  —  From    the   Latin,   dies 

day.     Daily. 

DOMES'TICA.    t  Latin.   Domestic  ;  re. 
DOMES'TICUS.  \      lating  to  home. 
DOR'SAL.  —  From  the  Latin,  dorsum, 

the  back.     Relating  to  the  back. 
1  Having    dorsal 
branchta.    or 


bra'nchiata. 

DORSIBRAN'CHIATA.  —  From  the  Latin, 
dorsum,  back,  and  branchiae,  gills. 
An  order  of  annelidans. 

DYTIS'CUS.—  From  the  Greek,  dutikos, 
diving,  expert  in  diving.  Name 
of  a  genus  of  aquatic  insects. 

ECHI'NODERM.  —  Belonging  or  relating 
to  Echinodermata. 

ECHINODER'MATA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
echinus,  a  hedge-hog,  and  derma, 
skin.  A  class  of  radiate  ani- 
mals. 

ELA'BORATE.     )  From  the  Latin,  lalo- 

ELABORA'TION.  $  ra're,  to  work.  — 
These  words  are  employed  to  sig- 
nify the  separation  and  appropria- 
tion of  nutritive  matter,  by  the 
action  of  living  organs,  upon  sub- 
stances capable  of  assimilation. 
The  elaboration  of  food  in  the 
stomach  produces  chyme. 

E'LATER.  —  From  the  Greek,  elater,  a 
leaper.  A  genus  of  insects. 

E'LYTRA.—  Plural  of  Elytrum. 

E'LYTRUM.  —  From  the  Greek,  elutron, 
a  sheath.  A  wing-cover.  The 
first  pair  of  wings,  when  hard  and 
horny,  as  in  beetles. 

ENTOMO'LOGY.  —  From  the  Greek, 
entoma,  insects,  and  logos,  dis- 
course. The  science  of  insects. 

EN'TOMO'STRACANS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
entomos,  incised,  and  oslrakon,  a 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


115 


shell.  A  division  of  the  class  of 
Crusta'cea. 

ENTOZO'A.  —  From  the  Greek,  entos, 
in,  and  200/1,  an  animal.  Name 
of  a  class  of  lowly  organized  crea- 
tures, which  live  in  the  internal 
organs  of  other  animals. 

EPHE'MERA.— From  the  Greek,  ephe- 
meras, daily.  A  genus  of  insects. 
Day-flies,  so  called,  because  their 
last  stage  of  existence  is  generally 
limited  to  twenty-four  hours. 

EPHE'MER^E. — Plural  of  Ephemera. 

EPIDER'MIS.  —  From  the  Greek,  epi, 
upon,  and  derma,  skin.  The  cuti- 
cle or  scarf-skin. 

EUNI'CE. — Greek.  A  genus  of  anne- 
lidans. 

EXCRE'TJON.    )  From    the  Latin,  ex- 

EXCRE'TORY.  £  cer'nere,  to  separate 
from.  The  throwing  off  those 
matters  which  are  supposed  to  be 
useless,  or  injurious  to  organic 
life,  as  the  perspiration  in  animals. 
An  excretion  is  a  secretion  thrown 
off.  An  excretory  duct,  is  any  duct 
conveying  off  an  excretion  from 
an  organ. 

EXO'TIC. — From  the  Greek,  exdtikos, 
foreign.  Any  thing  introduced 
into  one  country,  from  some  other 
country,  is  so  termed. 

EXTRE'MITIES. — Legs,  arms,  wings, 
are  so  termed. 

FA'CE  1-. — A  little  face,  or  surface. 

FARINA'CEOUS.  —  From  the  Latin, 
farina,  flour.  Of  the  nature  of 
flour. 

FAU'NA.  —  From  the  Latin,  faunus, 
the  name  of  a  rural  deity  among 
the  Romans.  All  animals  of  all 
kinds  peculiar  to  a  country  con- 
stitute the  fauna  of  that  country. 

FAU'N.E. — Plural  of  Fauna. 

FE'MUR. — Latin.     The  thigh. 

FILIA'RIA. — From  the  Latin,  filum,  a 
thread.  A  family  of  thread-like 
entozoa. 

FILIA'RIA:. — Plural  of  Filia'ria. 

FI'I.IFORM. — Thread-like. 

FISSJPEN'NA. — From  the  Latin,  Jindo, 
I  split,  and  penna,  wing.  A  genus 
of  insects,  remarkable  for  the 
wings  being  as  it  were  split  into 
separate  parts. 


FISSIPEN'N*:. — Plural  of  Fissipenna. 
FIS'SURED. — Split,  separated. 
FLEX'UOUS. — From  the  Latin,  flecto, 

I  bend.     Bending. 
FLOC'CULI. — Plural  offloculus,  a  lit- 

tie  lock  of  wool. 
FLUVIATI'LIS. — Fluviatile ;  belonging 

or  relating  to  a  river. 
FOR'CEPS. — Latin.     Pincers. 
FOR'FICULA. — From  the  Latin,  /or/ear, 

a   pair  of  scissors.     A   genus    of 

insects. 

FOR'MICA. — Latin.     An  ant. 
Fu'cus. — Latin.     Sea-weed. 
Fut/  vous. — Tawny. 
FUNC'TION. — From  the  Latin,  fungor, 

I  act.     The  action  of  an  organ  or 

set  of  organs. 
FU'SIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  fusus, 

a  spindle,  and  forma,  shape.     Spin- 

die-shaped. 
GALE'A. — Latin.     A  helmet.     In  Or- 

thoptera,  the  extremity  of  the  lobe 

of  the  palpus,  is  so  called. 
GAN'GLIA. — Plural  of  ganglion. 
GAX'GLION. — From  the  Greek,  gag- 

glion,  a  knot.     A  knot  or  enlarge- 
ment along  the  course  of  a  nerve. 
GAS'TEROPOD. — From  the  Greek,  gas- 

ter,  belly,  and  pous,  foot.     A  kind 

of  mollusk. 
GECAR'CINUS. — From  the  Greek,  ge, 

the  earth,  and  karkinos,   a   crab. 

A  genus  of  crusta'ceans.     Land- 
crab. 
GELA'TINOUS. — Of  the  nature  of  jelly 

or  gelatine :  jelly-like. 
GEO'COKIS^E.  —  From  the  Greek,  ge, 

earth,  and  koris,  bug.     A  division 

of  insects. 

GEOLO'GICAL. — Relating  to  Geology. 
GEO'LOGIST. — One  skilled  in  Geology. 
GEO'LOGY. — From  the  Greek^-e,  earth, 

and  logos,  discourse.     The  science 

of  the  earth. 
GER'MINATK. — From  the  Latin,  ger 

men,  a  bud.     To   grow  after  the 

manner  of  a  plant. 
GLU'TINOUS. — Sticky,  adhesive,  gluey. 

Of  the  nature  of  glue. 
GRA'NULAR.  —  Grain-like  ;  composed 

of  grains. 
GRILLO-TAL'PA. — Compounded  ofgri* 

lus,  a  cricket,  and  talpa,  a  mole 

Mole-cricket. 


116 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


GRY'LLUS,  also  Grillus.  —  Latin.     A 

cricket. 
GY'RINUS. — From  the  Greek,  guros,  a 

circle.     A  genus   of  coleopterous 

insects. 
HALTE'RES. — From  the  Greek,  '«/f  eres, 

lumps  of  lead  held  in  the  hands  to 

aid  persons  taking  the  exercise  of 

leaping,  like  the  balancing-poles  of 

rope-dancers.     Poisers. 
HEMIP'TERA. — From  the  Greek,  Vmt- 

SMS,  half,  and  pteron,  wing.     Name 

of  an  order  of  insects. 
HEMIP'TERA. — Plural  of  Hsemip'tera. 
HERBI'VOROUS.  —  From    the     Latin, 

herba,    plant,    and    coro,    I     eat. 

Plant-eating. 
HETEROME'RAN.  —  From   the   Greek, 

'eteros,  various,  and  meros,  joint, 

leg.     A   section    of  coleop'terous 

insects. 
HETEROP'TERA.  —  From   the   Greek, 

'eteros,  various,  and  pteron,  wing. 

A  section  of  the  order  Hemip'tera. 
HETEROP'TERJE. — Plural  of  Heterop'- 

tera. 
HEXA'GONAL. — From  the  Greek,  'ex, 

six,  and  gonia,  angle.     Having  six 

sides  or  angles. 
HEX' APOD. —  From    the  Greek,   'ex, 

six,   and  pous,  foot.     Having   six 

feet.     Applied  to  true  insects. 
HIEROGLY'PHIC.  —  From    the   Greek, 

ieros,   sacred,   and  gluphd,    I  en- 
grave.     Sculpture-writing.      The 

name  is  more  peculiarly  applied  to 

a  species  of  writing,  in  use  among 

the  ancient  Egyptians. 
HOMOP'TERA. — From  the  Greek,  'omos, 

same,  and  pteron,  wing.     An  order 

of  insects. 
HOMOP'TERA.  —  Plural   of   Homop'- 

tera. 
HOMOP'TERAN. — Of  the  order  Homop'- 

tera. 
HYDA'TIDS. — From  the  Greek,  'udatis, 

a  bladder.     Name  of  certain  ento- 

zoa. 
HY'DRA.  —  A-   minute    fresh   water 

polyp. 
HY'DROCO'RIS^;.  —  From   the  Greek, 

Wor,  water,  and  koris,  a  bug.     A 

tribe    of    insects,    including    the 

water-bug. 
HYMENOP'TERA.  —  From  the  Greek, 


'umen,  a  membrane,  and  pteron^ 
wing.  An  order  of  insects. 

HYMENOP'TERA.  —  Plural  of  Hyme- 
noptera. 

IMA'GO.  —  Latin.  Image.  Name 
given  to  insects  after  they  have 
completed  their  metamorphosis. 

IMBIBI'TION. — From  the  Latin,  in,  in, 
and  bibo,  I  drink.  The  act  of 
absorbing  or  soaking  in. 

INFUSO'RIA.  —  From  the  Latin,  in- 
fundo,  I  pour  in.  A  class  of 
microscopic  animalcules,  which 
are  for  the  most  part  developed  in 
infusions  of  decayed  animal  and 
vegetable  substances. 

INSEC'TA. — Latin.     Insects. 

IN'SECT. — From  the  Latin,  in,  into, 
and  seco,  I  cut.  Applied  to  a  class 
of  animals,  whose  bodies  are,  as  it 
were,  cut  into  three  parts ;  name- 
ly,  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 

INSECTI'VOROUS.  —  From  the  Latin, 
insecta,  insects,  and  voro,  I  eat. 
Insect-eating. 

INSERT'ED. — From  the  Latin,insere're, 
to  engraft.  Attached  ;  set  in. 

INTE'GUMENT. — Covering. 

INVE'RTEBRATE. — From  the  Latin,  in, 
without,  and  vertebra,  a  joint  of 
the  spine  or  back-bone.  Without 
spine  or  back-bone. 

IR'RITANS. — Latin.     Irritating. 

ISO'POD. — Of  the  order  Iso'poda. 

ISO'PODA.  —  From  the  Greek,  isos, 
equal,  and  pous,  foot.  An  order 
of  crusta'ceans. 

ISOTHER'MAL. — From  the  Greek,  isos, 
equal,  and  therme,  heat.  Of  the 
same  heat  or  temperature. 

LA'BIUM.— Latin.  A  lip.  The  lower 
lip  of  insects. 

LA'BRUM. — Latin.  A  lip.  The  up- 
per lip  of  insects. 

LAMEL'LA.  Latin.  A  thin  plate  or 
piece. 

LAMEL'LA.— Plural  of  lamella. 

LAMEL'LICORNES.  —  From  the  Latin, 
lamella,  a  plate,  and  cornu,  a 
horn.  A  section  of  coleopterous 
insects. 

LA'MINA.— Latin.     A  thin  plate. 

LA'MIN^E.  —  Plural  of  lamina.  A 
tribe  of  beetles. 

LAM'PYRA.  —  From  the  Greek,  lam* 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


117 


puris,  a  glow-worm.     A  genus  of 
insects. 

LAR'VA. — Latin.    A  mask.    The  first 
state  of  an  insect  after  leaving  the 

GSS- 
LECTULA'RIUS. — Latin.   Belonging  or 

relating  to  a  bed. 
LEPIDOP'TERA.  —  From    the    Greek, 

lepis,   a   scale,  and  pteron,  wing. 

An  order  of  insects. 
LEP'TUS.  —  From   the  Greek,  leptos, 

slender.       A    genus   of   arachni- 

dans. 
LIBEL'LULA. — Latin.      A   dragon-fly. 

A  genus  of  insects. 
LI'GULA. — A  part  of  the  lower  lip  of 

insects. 
LI'MULUS. — From   the   Latin,  limits, 

mud.     A  genus  of  crusta'ceans. 
LOCUS'TA. — Latin.     A  cray-fish.     A 

genus  of  crusta'ceans. 
LOCUS'T^E. — Plural  of  Locusta. 
LUCA'NUS. — From  the  Greek,  lukos,  a 

kind  of  insect.  A  genus  of  beetles. 
LUCI'FUGOS.  ?  Latin.  Formed  from 
LUCI'FUGA.  ^  lux,  light,  and  fugo, 

I  fly  from.     Light-avoiding. 
LUM'BRICUS. — A  genus  of  annelidans, 

and  also  a  genus  of  entozo'a. 
LUM'BRICI. — Plural  of  Lum'bricus. 
LY'COSA.  —  From  the  Greek,  lukos,  a 

wolf.     A  genus  of  arachnidans. 
LY'COS^E. — Plural  of  Lycosa. 
MACROU'RA. — From  the  Greek,   ma- 

kros,  long,  and  oura,  tail.     A  sec- 
tion of  decapod  crusta'ceans. 
M^E'NAS.  —  From   the  Greek,  menis, 

wrath.     Specific  name  of  a  crab. 
MAM'MAL. — Any  animal  that  suckles 

its  young. 
MAN'DIBLE. —  From  the  Latin,  man- 

dibula,   a    jaw.      Applied   to   the 

lower  jaw   of   mammals,  and   to 

both  jaws  of  birds.     In  insects  it 

is  applied  to  the  upper  or  anterior 

pair  of  jaws. 
MANDUCA'TION.  —  From    the   Latin, 

manduco,   I   chew.      The   act   of 

chewing ;  mastication. 
MARI'NUS. — Latin.    Marine ;  belong- 
ing to  the  sea. 

MASTICA'TION. — The  act  of  chewing. 
MAX'ILLA. — Latin.    The  cheek-bone ; 

a  mandible. 

.— Plural  of  Maxilla. 


MAX'ILLARY.  —  Relating  to  the  Max- 
ill®. 

ME'DIA. — Plural  of  Medium. 

ME'DIO-PEC'TUS.  —  From  the  Latin, 
medius,  the  middle,  and  pectus, 
breast.  The  centre  of  the  breast 
of  insects.  See  p.  15. 

ME'DIO-STER'NUM. — The  central  por- 
tion of  the  sternum  or  breast  of 
insects. 

ME'DIUM. — The  substance  or  matter 
in  which  bodies  exist,  or  through 
which  they  pass  in  moving  from 
one  point  to  another.  The  air,  for 
example,  is  a  medium,  in  which 
we  exist ;  fishes  live  in  another 
medium. 

MEDU'SA.  —  A  genus  of  marine  ani- 
mals of  the  class  Acale'pha. 

MEDU'S^E. — Plural  of  Medusa. 

MELO-LON'THA.  —  Greek.  From  me- 
lon, an  apple,  and  anthos,  flower. 
Generic  name  of  a  kind  of  beetle. 

MEM'BRANOUS.  —  Of  the  nature  of 
membrane. 

MEN'TUM. — Latin.     The  chin. 

ME'SOTHORAX.  —  From  the  Greek, 
mesos,  the  middle,  and  thorax,  the 
chest.  The  middle  ring  of  the 
thorax  of  insects. 

METAMOR'PHOSIS.  —  From  the  Greek, 
mela,  indicating  change,  and  mor- 
phe,  form.  Transformation.  The 
change  which  insects  undergo. 

METAMOR'PHOSES.  —  Plural  of  Meta- 
morphosis. 

ME'TATHORAX.  —  From  the  Greek, 
meta,  between,  and  thorax,  chest. 
The  third  ring  of  the  thorax  of 
insects,  so  called,  because  it  is  be- 
tween the  chest  and  abdomen. 

MI'CROSCOPE.  —  From  the  Greek, 
mikros,  small,  and  skoped,  I  view. 
An  optical  instrument,  by  means 
of  which  we  are  enabled  to  ex- 
amine minute  objects,  such  as 
cannot  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 

MICROSCO'PIC. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  a  microscope, 

MI'GRATORY.  —  From  the  Latin,  mi- 
grate, to  move  from  one  place  to 
another.  Applied  to  animals  which 
habitually  change  their  place  ot 
residence. 

MOL'LUSK, — From  the  Latin,  mollis 


118 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


soft.  A  peculiar  description  of 
soft  animal. 

MO'RI.  —  Latin.  Of  the  mulberry 
tree. 

MO'RUS. — Latin.     A  mulberry  tree. 

MO'TIVE.  —  From  the  Latin,  movco, 
I  move.  That  which  moves  or 
sets  in  motion. 

MOULT. — To  change  the  feathers ;  to 
cast  the  skin. 

MOULT'ING.  —  The  act  of  chang- 
ing the  feathers  or  casting  the 
skin. 

MUS'CA. —  Latin.     Fly, 

MUSCI'D^E. — From  the  Latin,  musca, 
a  fly,  and  the  Greek,  eidos,  resem- 
blance. A  section  or  division  of 
the  class  of  insects,  which  includes 
flies. 

MY'GALE. — From  the  Greek,  mugale, 
a  field-mouse.  A  large  kind  of 
spider. 

MY'RIAPOD.  —  Of  the  class  My'ria- 
poda. 

Mv'RiAPonA.-»-From  the  Greek,  mu- 
rias,  ten  thousand,  and  pous,  foot. 
A  class  of  articulate  animals. 

NA'TATORY.  —  From  the  Latin,  tiato, 
I  swim.  Swimming,  floating. 

NERVU'RES. — The  horny  tubes  in  the 
wings  of  insects,  which  serve  to 
stretch  them. 

NEUROP'TERA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
neuron,  a  nerve,  and  pteron,  wing. 
An  order  of  insects. 

NIT. — A  louse's  egg. 

NOCTILU'CUS. — Latin.  Belonging  or 
relating  to  the  moon. 

NOCTUR'NAL. — From  the  Latin,  nox, 
night.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
night. 

NUTRI'TION.  —  The  animal  function, 
by  which  the  various  organs  re- 
ceive nutritive  substances  (previ- 
ously prepared  by  the  several  or- 
gans of  digestion),  necessary  to 
repair  their  losses  and  maintain 
their  strength. 

NYM'PHA.  —  The  second  stage  of 
metamorphosis  of  insects. 

O'CELLAR. — Relating  to  ocelli. 

O'CELLI. — Latin.  Plural  of  ocellus, 
a  little  eye. 

CESO'PHAGUS. — The  gullet. 

(Es'TRi.— Plural  of  CEstrus. 


— Latin.     A  gad-fly. 

ONIS'CUS. — Latin.     A  wood-louse. 

OP'TIC.  —  From  the  Greek,  optomai, 
I  see.  Relating  to  vision. 

O'RAL.  —  From  the  Latin,  oris,  the 
mouth.  Relonging  or  relating  to 
the  mouth. 

OR'GAN. — From  the  Greek,  organon, 
an  instrument.  Part  of  an  organ- 
ized being,  destined  to  perform  a 
particular  function. 

ORGA'NIC. — Relating  to  organs. 

ORGANIZATION.  —  A  mode  of  struc- 
ture. 

OR'GANISM.  —  The  arrangement  of 
organs ;  the  assemblage  of  their 
different  functions. 

ORTHOP'TERA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
orthos,  straight,  and  pteron,  wing. 
An  order  of  insects. 

ORTHOP'TERA.  —  Plural  of  Orthop'- 
tera. 

OS'SIFIED. — From  the  Latin,  os,  bone. 
Converted  into  bone. 

O'TIOPJ.  —  From  the  Greek,  dtion,  a 
small  ear.  A  genus  of  cirrhopods. 

O'VA. — Plural  of  ovum. 

O'VARY. — Receptacle  of  the  ova. 

O'VUM. — Latin.     An  egg. 

OVIDUCT.  —  From  the  Latin,  ovum, 
an  egg,  and  duco,  I  lead.  The 
tube  which  conducts  the  ovum 
from  the  ovary. 

OVI'PAROUS. — From  the  Latin,  ovum, 
an  egg,  and  pario,  I  produce.  Ap- 
plied to  animals  whose  young  are 
born  from  eggs. 

OVIPOS'ITOR. — From  the  Latin,  ovum, 
an  egg,  and  pono,  I  place.  The 
instrument  by  which  insects  de- 
posit their  eggs. 

OX'YGEN. — The  vivifying  gas,  which 
constitutes  about  one-fifth  of  the 
atmosphere. 

PAGU'RUS. — Latin.     Hermit-crab. 

PALJE'MON. — Generic  name  of  prawns. 

PAL'PI. — Latin.     Plural  of  Palpus. 

PAL' PUS. — Latin.  A  feeler.  An  or- 
gan  attached  in  pairs  to  the  labium 
and  maxilla  of  insects. 

PAPI'LIO. — Latin.     A  butterfly. 

PARENCHY'MATA.  —  From  paren'chy- 
ma,  which  is  formed  from  the 
Greek,  paregchuein,  to  strain 
through ;  the  spongy  and  cellular 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


119 


tissue  of  organized  bodies.  Re- 
lating to  paren'chyma. 

PARASI'TA. — Latin.     Parasite. 

PARASI'T^E. — Plural  of  Parasita. 

PA'RASITE.  —  A  hanger  on,  an  ad- 
herent. 

PARASI'TIC.  —  Of  the  nature  of  a 
parasite. 

PARI'ETES. — From  the  Latin,  pari'es, 
a  wall.  The  sides  or  parts  form- 
ing  an  enclosure ;  the  limits  of 
different  organic  cavities  are  so 
termed. 

PEC'TINATE. — From  the  Latin,  pecten, 
a  comb.  Resembling  the  teeth  of 
a  comb. 

PEC'TUS. — Latin.     The  breast. 

PED'ICLE. — A  little  foot :  a  support. 

PEDI'CULUS.: — Latin.     A  louse. 

PEDIPAL'PI.  —  From  the  Latin,  pes, 
foot,  and  palpo,  I  feel. 

PE'DIPALPS.  —  Name  of  a  tribe  of 
arach'nidans. 

PE'DUNCLE. — A  foot-stalk  or  tube  on 
which  anything  is  seated. 

PEL' LET. — A  little  ball. 

PEL'TRY.  —  From  the  Latin,  pellis, 
skin  or  hide.  The  name  given  to 
dried  skins  of  animals  from  which 
furs  are  prepared. 

PE'NETRANS. — Latin.     Penetrating. 

PENTALAS'MIS.  —  A  genus  of  Cirrho- 
pods. 

PENTAME'RAN.  —  From  the  Greek, 
pente,  five,  and  meros,  joint.  A 
section  of  coleopterous  insects. 

PENTATO'MA.  —  A  genus  of  hemip'- 
terans. 

PHALAN'GIUM.  —  Latin.  A  genus  of 
arachnidans,  including  those  in 
which  all  the  legs  are  very  long 
and  slender. 

PHA'RYNX. — The  swallow. 

PHILE'NOR. — Specific  name  of  a  but- 
terfly. 

PHOSPHORES'CENCE. — From  the  Greek, 
phds,  light,  and  phero,  I  carry. 
The  emission  of  light  by  substan- 
ces at  common  temperatures. 

PHOSPHORES'CENT. — Emitting  light  at 
common  temperatures. 

PHYSIO'LOGIST.  —  One  skilled  in  phy- 
siology. 

PHTHI'SIS. — From  the  Greek,  phthio, 
I  fade.  Consumption. 


PHYTOLO'GICAL.  —  From   the  Greek, 

phuton,  plant,  and  logos,  discourse. 

Belonging  or  relating  to  plants. 
PO'LYP.  —  From   the   Greek,   polust 

many,  and  pous,  foot.     A  radiate 

animal. 

PO'LYPI. — Latin.    Plural  of  polypus. 
PO'LYPUS. — Latin.     A  polyp. 
POLYGAS'TRIC.  —  From    the    Greek, 

polus,  many,  and  gaster,  stomach. 

Having  many  stomachs. 
POLYGAS'TRICA.  —  Latin.      Polygas- 

tric. 
PORTU'NUS.  —  Latin.     Formed  from, 

portus,    a    port,   bay,   or    haven. 

Name  of  a  group  of  crusta'ceans. 
POST-PEC'TUS. — From  the  Latin,  post, 

behind,   and    pectus,    the    breast. 

That  part  of  the  breast  of  insects 

which   corresponds   to   the   meta- 

thorax. 
POST-STER'NUM.  —  The  posterior  part 

of  the  sternum. 
PREHEN'SILE. — From  the  Latin,  pre- 

hendere,  to  lay  hold  of.     Having 

the  power  to  grasp  or  lay  hold  of 

objects. 
PREHEN'SION.  —  The   act   of  taking 

hold  of.     The  prehension  of  food, 

consists  of  laying  hold  of  and  con- 

veying  it  to  the  mouth. 
PROBOS'CIS.  —  A  prolongation  of  the 

nose  or  corresponding  part. 
PROCESSIONNE'A. — Latin.    That  goes 

in  procession. 
PRO'JECTILE. —  From  the  Latin,  pro- 

jicio,  I  throw  forward.     Capable 

of  being  thrown  forward. 
PROTHO'RAX.  —  The  first  ring  of  the 

thorax. 
PTERO'PHORA.  —  From     the    Greek, 

pteron,  wing,  and  phero,  I  bear. 

A  genus  of  nocturnal  lepidopterous 

insects. 

PU'LEX.— Latin.    A  flea. 
PULMONA'RIA. — Latin.     Pulmonary. 
PUL'MONARY. — Relating  or  belonging 

to  the  lungs. 
PU'PA.  —  Latin.     A  puppet,  a  baby. 

The  second  stage  of  metamorpho- 
sis of  insects  is  so  called. 
PU'P^E. — Plural  of  pupa. 
PY'RIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  pyrum, 

a  pear,  and  forma,  shape.     Pear 

shaped. 


120 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


QUADRICOK'NIS.  —  From  the  Latin, 
quatuor,  four,  and  cornu,  horn. 
Specific  name  of  a  crusta'cean. 

RADIA'TA. — Latin.     Radiate. 

RA'DIATE. — From  the  Latin,  radius, 
spoke  of  a  wheel,  a  ray.  Radiate 
animals  are  those  of  the  lowest 
degree  of  organization  in  the  ani- 
mal kingdom. 

RA'MIFIED. — From  the  Latin,  ramus, 
a  branch.  Branched. 

RECU'RVED. — Bent  backwards. 

RETI'CULATED. — Formed  like  a  piece 
of  net-work. 

RETRAC'TTLE.  —  Susceptible  of  being 
drawn  back. 

RHIPIP'TERA. — From  the  Greek,  ripis, 
a  fan,  and  pteron,  wing.  An  order 
of  insects. 

RI'CINUS. — Latin.     A  tick. 

ROS'TRUM. — Latin.     A  beak,  a  snout. 

ROTATO'RIA. — Latin.     Rotatory. 

SABEL'LA. — A  genus  of  cirrhopods. 

SABEL'L,E. — Plural  of  Sabella. 

SALI'VA.  —  Fluid  secreted  in  the 
mouth  :  spittle. 

SA'LIVARY. — Relating  to  saliva. 

SARCOP'TES.  —  A  genus  of  arachni- 
dans. 

SARCITEL'LA. — From  the  Latin,  sarcio, 
I  patch.  A  genus  of  moths. 

SCARABE'US.  —  Latin.  A  beetle,  a 
chaffer. 

SCOLOPEN'DRA. — Latin.  Generic  name 
of  centipedes. 

SCOR'PIO. — Latin.     A  scorpion. 

SECRE'TE. — From  the  Latin,secernere, 
to  separate.  To  select  and  take 
from  the  organic  fluids,  materials 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  purposes 
of  the  organ  or  agent  that  secretes. 

SECRE'TION.  —  The  act  or  process  by 
which  organic  structure  is  enabled 
to  separate  from  the  fluids  circu- 
lating in  it,  other  different  fluids. 
The  fluids  thus  separated,  are 
termed  secretions. 

SECRE'TORY. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  secretion. 

SEDENTA'RIA. — Latin.     Sedentary. 

SEDENTA'RI^E. — Plural  of  sedenta'ria. 

SEG'MENT.— A  slice,  a  section. 

SER'PULA. — From  the  Latin,  serpo,  1 
creep.  A  family  of  anne'lidans, 
which  inhabit  a  calcareous  tube, 


usually  adherent  to  the  shells  of 

mollusks. 

SER'RATE.    )  From  the  Latin,  serro, 
SER'RATEO.  £      a    saw.      Having    a 

rough  edge  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 
SERRICOR'NES. — From  the  Latin,serr<7, 

a  saw,  and  cornu,  horn.     A  family 

of  coleopterous  insects. 
SES'SILE.  —  From  the  Latin,  sessilis, 

dwarfish.      Without  a  pedicle  or 

support. 

SE'TA. — Latin.     A  bristle. 
SE'™.— Plural  of  seta. 
SETA'CEOUS.  —  Of  the  nature  of  setae 

or  bristles. 
SETI'GEROUS.  —  Having    or   bearing 

setae. 

SI'NUS. — An  excavation  or  hollow. 
SPIN'NERETS. — Spinners.  Organs  with 

which  insects  spin  their  silk  or  web. 
STER'NAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 

the  sternum. 

STER'NUM. — The  breast-bone. 
STIG'MATA. — A  spiracle  or  breathing. 

hole,  forming  the  external  opening 

of  the  tracheae   or   air-vessels,  in 

insects. 

STI'LET. — A  little  stile  or  point. 
STY'LIFORM. — In  shape  of  a  stile. 
Sucyo'RiA. — Latin.     Suctorial. 
SUCTO'RIAI,. — From  the  Latin,  sugo, 

I  suck.     Applied  to  those  tribes  of 

insects,   crustaceans    and    anneli- 

dans,    which    are    provided   with 

suckers. 

SYPHO'STOMA. — From  the  Greek,  si- 
phon, a   tube,  and  stoma,  mouth. 

A  genus  of  annelidans. 
TJE'NIA.  —  From  the  Greek,  tainia, 

a  fillet.     A  tape-worm. 
TAH'TRA. — A  genus  of  crusta'ceans. 
TAREN'TULA.  —  From    Tarentum,    a 

town  in  Italy.     A  genus  of  arach'- 

nidans. 

TAR'SI. — Plural  of  tarsus. 
TAR'SUS.  —  The  fifth  section  or  divi- 
sion of  the  leg  of  insects,  or  foot. 
TEGENA'RIA. — From  the  Latin,  tegere, 

to  conceal.     A  name  applied  to  the 

family  of  spiders. 
TEG'UMENT. — From  the  Latin,  tego,  I 

cover.     A  covering ;  the  skin,  for 

example. 

TEGUMEN'TARY.  —  Belonging    or  re- 
lating to  the  tegument. 


ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY. 


121 


TEN'TACLE. — From  the  Latin,  tenta- 

culum,  a  holder.     Certain   appen- 
dages about  the  mouth  of  insects, 

&c. 
TENTA'CULAII. — Belonging  or  relating 

to  ten'tacles. 
TEREBRAN'TIA. — From  the  Latin,  tere- 

bro,  I  bore.     A  section  of  hyme- 

nopterous  insects. 
TERIBEI/LA.  —  A  genus   of  anneli- 

dans. 
TER'MITES. — From  the  Latin,  termes, 

a  branch  of  a  tree.     A  tribe   of 

neuropterous  insects. 
TERRICO'LA. — From  the  Latin,  terra, 

earth,  and  colo,  I  inhabit.     A  divi- 
sion of  annelidans. 
TESTA'CEOUS.  —  From     the     Latin, 

testa,  a   shell.     Of  the  nature  of 

shells. 
TETRAME'RANS.  —  From  the   Greek, 

tetteies,  four,  and  meros,  joint.     A 

division  of  coleopterous  insects. 
THELPHU'SA.  —  A  genus   of  crusta'- 

ceans. 
THORA'CIC. — Belonging  or  relating  to 

the  thorax. 

THO'RAX.— The  chest. 
THYSANOU'RA.  —  From    the    Greek, 

thusanai,  fringes,   and   oura,  tail. 

An  order  of  insects. 
TI'BIA. — A  leg. 
TI'BIJE.—  Plural  of  tibia. 
TI'NEA. — Latin.     A  moth- worm,  that 

eats  clothing,  books,  &c. 
TI'NE.E. — Plural  of  tinea. 
TIS'SUE. — From  the  Latin,  texere,  to 

weave.     The  substances  of  which 

the  organs  are  composed. 
TRA'CHEA  (tra'ke-a). — Wind-pipe  ;   a 

tube  conveying  air. 
TRA'CHE^E. — Plural  of  trachea. 
TRA'CHEAL,  (tra'ke-al).  —  Relating  to 

trachea. 
TRACHEA'RIA.  —  Latin.       Tracheal ; 

having  tracheae. 
TRI'LOBITE. — From   the   Latin,  Ires, 

three,    and   lobus,   lobe.     A  fossil 

crusta'cean. 
TRIME'RANS. — From  the  Greek,  treis, 

three,  and  meros,  joint.    A  division 

of  coleopterous  insects. 
TRIRA'DIATE. — From  the  Latin,  tres, 

THE 


three,   and   radius,   ray.      Three* 

rayed. 
TRITO'RES.  —  Latin.     Grinders ;  tri 

turators. 
TUBICO'LA.— From  the  Latin,  tubus, 

a   tube,   and   colo,    I    inhabit.     A 

genus  of  anne'lidans.   . 
TU'BICOLE. — Tube-inhabiting. 
TU'BERCLE. — A  small  tuber;  a  little 

knot  or  nob. 
TUR'BINATED.  —  Shaped  like  a  top  or 

pear. 
UTRI'CULA.— Latin.     A  little  bladder 

or  sac. 

UTRI'CUL^E. — Plural  of  utricula. 
VAGABUN'D,E. — Latin.     Vagabond. 
VANES'SA. — From  the  Greek,  phanes, 

one   of  the   names  of  Venus.     A 

genus  of  butterflies. 
VAS'CULAR.  —  Having  numerous  ves- 
sels. 

VE'NOUS. — Relating  to  the  veins. 
VEN'TRAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 

the  belly. 
VEN'TRICLE.— A  little  belly ;  a  small 

cavity. 
VER'TEBRATE. —  Having  vertebrae,  or 

a  spine. 
VESICATO'RIA.  —  Latin.     Vesicating, 

blistering.     Specific  name  of  the 

Spanish-fly. 

VE'SICLE.— A  little  bladder. 
VES'PA. — Latin.     A  wasp. 
VES'PIARY. — A  wasp's  nest. 
VIS'CERA. — Plural  of  viscus. 
Vis'cus.  —  Any  internal  part,  as  the 

intestine,  &c. 
VITA'TA. — Latin.    Avoided,  shunned. 

Specific  name  of  a  fly. 
VI'TREOUS. — From  the  Latin,  vitrea, 

glass.     Resembling  glass  ;  of  the 

nature  of  glass. 
VULGA'RIS. — Latin.     Common. 
XI'PHOSURA. — From  the  Grcek,ziphos, 

a  sword,  and  ovra,  tail.     Name  of 

a  tribe  of  crusta'ceans. 
ZOOL'OGY. —  From  the  Greek,  zoon, 

an  animal,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

The  science  of  animals. 
ZOOLO'GICAL. — Belonging  to  zoology. 
ZO'OPHYTE. — From  the  Greek,  zoon, 

an  animal,  and  phutw,  plant.    A 

plant  animal. 

END, 


NEW  AND  IMPORTANT  SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

TO  TEACHERS,  PRINCIPALS  AND  CONTROLLERS 

OF  SCHOOLS,  ACADEMIES  AND  COLLEGES 


We  take  the  liberty  of  calling  your  attention  to  a  Series 
of  Books  on  the  subject  of  Natural  History,  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  of  the  most  eminent  men  in  our  country, 
is  second  to  no  branch  of  knowledge  now  taught  in  schools. 
We  ask  your  attention  to  these  books,  because  we  believe 
them  to  be  superior  to  any  works  of  the  kind  ever  offered 
to  the  American  public.  They  are  small  in  size,  extremely 
cheap,  as  accurate  in  scientific  arrangement  as  the  most 
voluminous  works  on  similar  subjects,  and  in  every  respect, 
such  as  parents  and  teachers  would  wish  to  place  in  the 
hands  of  their  children.  In  confirmation  of  this  opinion  of 
the  worth  of  these  works,  we  respectfully  invite  your 
attention  to  the  following  testimonials. 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servants, 

GRIGG  &  ELLIOT, 
No.  9  North  Fourth  Street,  Philad'a 


These  books  have  been  introduced  into  the  Public  Schools  of  Pennsylvania 
and  Ohio,  and  no  doubt  will,  ere  long,  be  introduced  into  all  the  public  schools 
of  our  other  States. 

"We  regard  the  introduction  of  these  works  into  our  public  schools,  among  the 
highest  compliments  they  have  received ;  for  we  feel  sure  that  the  gentlemen 
who  constitute  the  committee  for  selecting  books,  possess  too  much  discernment 
and  general  knowledge,  to  pass  favourably  upon  works  of  inferior  pretensions. 
The  following  gentlemen  composed  the  Committee  for  selecting  books  for  the 
use  of  Public  Schools."  GEORGE  M.  WHARTON,  Esq. 

THOMAS  H.  FoRsyrrf,  Esq. 
GEORGE  EMLEN,  Jr.,  Esq. 
FRANCIS  LYONS,  Esq. 
JOHN  C.  SMITH,  Esq. 
Philadelphia. 

In  addition  to  the  following  flattering  notices  of  the  American  Press,  the  pub- 
lishers have  received  upwards  of  one  hundred  recommendations  from  the  most 
prominent  professors  and  distinguished  teachers  of  our  country,  to  the  superior 
claims  of  these  works,  and  urging  their  introduction  as  Class  Books  into  all  the 
Schools,  Academies,  &c.,  throughout  the  United  States. 


HUSCHENBERGER'S    SERIES. 

FIRST  BOOKS 

OF 

NATURAL    HISTORY, 

SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES,  AND  FAMILIES. 


1.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

2.  ELEMENTS  OF 

MAMMALOGY, 

The   Natural   History  of  (Quadrupeds. 

3.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ORNITHOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Birds. 

4.  ELEMENTS  OF 

HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Reptiles  and  Fishes. 

5.  ELEMENTS  OF 

CONCHOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Shells  and  Mollusca. 

6.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ENTOMOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Insects. 

7.  ELEMENTS  OF 

BOTANY, 

The    Natural   History  of  Plants. 

8.  ELEMENTS  OF 

GEOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  the  Earth's  Structure. 

This  interesting  series  of  books  has  already  met  with  the  most 
flattering  reception  ever  extended  to  any  work  issued  from  the  Amer- 
ican press.  Introduced  into  the  Public  Schools  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  nearly  all  the  first  class  seminaries  of  learning  in  the  United  States. 


RECOMMENDATORY    NOTICES. 

"  Ruschenberger's  Series  of  Books  on  Natural  History,  are  among  the 
most  valuable  and  useful  works,  for  the  use  of  Schools  that  have  ever  been 
published.  A  knowledge  of  Natural  History,  is  not  only  valuab  e,  but 
deeply  interesting;  and  no  one's  education  can,  with  such  facili  ies  as  these 
works  afford,  be  considered  comp'ete  without  it." — National  Intelligencer. 

"These  are  the  mo^t  valuable  Additions  of  the  day  to  our  stock  of  School 
Books.  The  avidity  with  which  they  have  been  seized  upon  is  unprece^ 
dented.  Though  the  first  vol.  w.is  published  for  the  first  time  only  a  few 
months!  ngo,  it  has  already  gone  through  its  fifth  edition;  the  second  is  fol. 
lowing  clo.-e  upon  its  heels;  and  the  third  prorni  es  even  to  be  more  popular 
than  either  of  the  other  two.  These  books  have  been  adopted  by  the  *  Uoyal 
Council  of  Public  Instruction,'  for  the  use  of  Schoo's  throughout  France. 
They  are  recommended  and  have  been  adopted  by  some  of  the  most  eini 
nent  teachers  in  the  United  States." — Southern  Literary  Messenger. 

From  ''The  Ladies'  Companion,  a  Monthly  Magazine."  June,  1842,— New  York. 
W.  Snowden,  109,  Fulton  Street. 

"RuscHENBKRGEa's  ORNITHOLOGY:  Grigg  &  Elliot.  This  is  an  excel, 
lent  book,  by  one  who  shows  himself  perfectly  qualified  for  the  task  he  has 
undertaken,  which  is  the  publishing  of  a  series  of  works  on  the  different 
branches  of  education,  for  the  use  of  schools  and  colleges.  The  present 
issue  is  a  general  and  synoptical  view  of  Ornithology,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  subjects  in  Natural  History,  and  will  be  found  of  great  service, 
both  to  teacher  and  student." 

"  This  is  a  compendious,  and,  as  it  seems  to  us.  a  judiciously  compiled 
treatise  on  Ornithology,  and  one  well  calculated  for  the  use  of  Schools ;  for 
which  object  it  is  intended." — N.  Y.  Courier  and  Enquirer. 

"  In  the  work  before  us,  the  plan  is  happily  carried  out.  In  its  small 
compass  it  embraces  an  immense  amount  of  useful  and  interesting  infor- 
ination." — Buffalo  Adv.  and  Journal. 

"Ornithology. — This  is  evidently,  like  its  predecessors,  an  excellent  work 
of  instruction;  and  ha^  been,  in  all  respects  well  got  up  by  the  publishers/' 
• — Pennsylvanian, 

"  A  valuable  little  work,  and  is  divided  up  and  classified  admirably.  The 
glossary,  giving  the  derivation  of  the  names  of  birds,  is  of  itself  worth  the 
price  of  the  volume." — New  York  Aurora. 

"An  exceedingly  interesting,  and  very  instructive  book,  and  one  which 
possesses  special  attraction  for  young  ladies." — Baltimore  Sun. 

"RuscHRNBERGEu's  SERIES  :  Second  Book. — A  highly  useful  and  instructive 
school  book.  Third  Book. — This  we  consider  as  decidedly  an  acquisition 
to  our  list  of  school  books,  the  subject  is  treated  of.  in  such  a  plain  style  aa 
to  be  adapted  to  the  simplest  capacity.  Altogether  we  think  the  above 
series  as  worthy  to  take  a  high  and  permanent  place  among  our  schord 
books  " — Buffalo  Democrat. 

"  We  wish  we  could  induce  our  teachers  generally  to  examine  this,  a? 
well  as  the  earlier  works  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger ;  they  are  admirably 
arranged,  and  just  the  very  books  needed  for  schools.  The  work  before 
us  on  the  Natural  History  of  Birds  is  an  admirable  one,  and  no  teachei 
should  neglect  to  introduce  the  series.  ' — Cincinnati  Gazette. 

*  It  is  an  excellent  text  book  of  an  interesting  science,  comprising  much 
knowledge  in  a  brief  space,  presented  in  a  clear  style  and  with  lucid 
arrangement.  Dr.  Rnschenbergcr,  who  has  already  achieved  a  high  charac 
rer  in  the  li'erary  world,  is  acquiring  additional  claims  by  his  exertions  i» 
the  field  uf  Natural  Science.—  Spectator,  Washington  City. 


RECOMMENDATORY    NOTICES. 

**  Ruschenberger's  Series. — These  volumes  are  constructed  upon  a  new 
and  admirable  plan,  combining  great  simplicity  of  arrangement,  with  a 
perspicuity  and  sententiousness  of  style  seldom  found  in  works  of  this 
class;  find  which  has  elicited  the  highest  encomiums  of  upwards  of  thirty 
of  the  leading  professors  of  the  country,  whose  opinions  have  again  been 
endorsed  by  most  of  the  public  prints." — U.  States  Adv. 

"The  developement  of  the  principles  of  classification,  is  among  the  very 
best  we  have  ever  seen.  Science  is  here  dressed  in  her  own  native  sim- 
plicity and  beauty,  so  that  the  philosopher  may  admire,  while  the  child  may 
acquire  it. — Medical  Reporter. 

"  it  is  a  choice,  and  well  digested  work." — Atlas. 

"An  excellent  publication  adapted  to  the  youthful  mind,  and  a  great  help 
to  the  more  matured." — Mercury. 

"The  study  of  Natural  History  though  generally  neglected  in  schools, 
is  of  undoubted  use  :  the  present  work  contains  a  great  amount  of  infor. 
niation  within  a  sm;ill  compass,  and  properly  condenses  it  for  the  young 
mind." — N.  Y.  Journal  of  Commerce. 

"  Ruschenberger'>s  Series. — The  subjects  are  Well  treated,  and  from  the 
exceeding  cheapness,  and  admirable  arrangimeu' of  these  elementary  work?, 
they  are  well  fitted  for  general  use  in  public  schools  and  academies."— 
New  York  American. 

"We  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  this  is  the  best  work  of  the  kind  and 
dimensions,  that  has  even  fallen  under  our  notice.  We  hope  all  will  embrace 
the  first  opportunity  of  procuring  a  copy,  as  we  are  sure  they  will  prize 
it  highly." — Botanic  Recorder. 

"A  well  dige  ted  and  curefu'ly  arranged  abstract  of  the  most  interesting 
parts  of  Natural  Science." — Philade'phia  Gazrtte 

"Admirably  adapted  to  convey  an  elementary  knowledge  on  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats;  and  will  be  found  an  excellent  book  for  the  student." — 
Public  Ledger. 

"Valuable  in  every  respect, — it  contains  a  vast  amount  of  inform  ition, 
condensed  into  an  available  form,  for  the  use  of  schools." — Spirit  of  the  Times. 

14  Just  such  a  work  as  is  wan'ed  for  elementary  instruction,  in  this  pleas- 
ing  branch  of  science." — New  York  Evening  Post. 

"  We  regard  this  series  as  eminently  useful,  supplying  adequately  the 
instruction  in  natural  history  necessary  to  a  proper  school  education."— 
North  American. 

"  It  is  an  rxcellcnt  little  woik  for  the  purpose  designed,  written  in  a  cl  ar 
and  familiar  style,  and  will  not  fail  to  facilitate  the  studies  of  those  who 
wish  to  make  themselve-  acquainted  with  the  subject." — Sat'irday  Courier. 

"Admirably  adapted  for  elementary  instruction."— Sutuidny  Chronicle. 

"  We  have  great  pleasure  in  recommending  it  as  an  excellent  elementary 
manual  on  th<-  subject  " — Medical  Examiner. 

"Ornithology — This  book  is  equal  in  merit  to  the  first  and  second,  and 
is  a  most  valuable  work.  It  is  intended  for  the  use  of  schools  and  acade- 
mies, and  we  would  call  the  attention  of  parents  and  others  to  the  series  of 
books  to  which  this  belongs,  assuring  them  at  the  same  time,  that  it  will 
answer  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended,  better  than  any  other  work  of 
the  kind  that  we  ever  saw,  or,  in  our  opinion,  that  was  ever  published  in 
this  country.  It  is  divided  into  questions  and  answers,  contains  an  exten- 
sive and  valuable  Glossary,  end  is  illustrated  by  eight  Plates  ;  and  what  19 
more  the  price  is  so  very  low  that  every  person  can  aftord  to  purchase  it. — 
fitv)  Yoik  New  Era. 

4. 


RECOMMENDATORY  NOTICES. 

it  has  been  justly  observed,  that  "  the  double  effect  of  the  study  of  Natural  Hi«oiy 
is  to  impart  certainty  to  the  mind,  and  religion  to  the  heart,"  and  the  Christian  no  les» 
than  the  man  of  science,  must  rejoice  in  every  effort  to  throw  more  widely  open  the 
sublime  and  boundless  field  which  it  presents.  This  is  the  design  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger, 
in  a  series  of  First  Books  of  Natural  History,  which  he  is  preparing  foi  the  use  oi 
schools  and  colleges. — Banner  of  the  Cross. 

The  series  have  met  a  demand  and  sale  in  Prance  almost  unparalleled,  and  the  words 
are  well  adapted,  not  only  for  schools,  but  for  popular  reading  and  instruction.  This 
work  is  from  the  French  of  Edwards  and  Comte,  and  has  received  the  warm  commen- 
dation of  many  of  the  best  physicians  and  scholars  in  this  country — JV.  Y.  Eve.  Tattltr* 

It  is  highly  commended  by  the  very  best  authorities.— JV.  Y.  Tribune. 

This  book  is  highly  commended  by  competent  judges,  and  we  therefore  give  our  so* 
lemn  opinion  that  it  is  an  excellent  work.— Boston  Daily  Times. 

A  small,  but  very  valuable  work. — Boston  Evening  Transcript. 

We  have  examined  this  new  book  for  schools  and  colleges,  with  peculiar  gratification. 
The  style  is  succinct  and  clear,  and  the  subject  illustrated  by  appropriate  drawings.  We 
should  be  glad  to  see  this  work  introduced  into  all  the  schools.  It  teaches  knowledge 
the  most  important,  which  has  been,  however,  strangely  overlooked  in  our  school  and 
college  system.  It  is  a  book  which  should  not  be  confined  to  seminaries  alone  It  may 
be  used  with  advantage  by  all  individuals  in  society.  We  repeat,  it  is  in  all  respects  a 
most  excellent  work,  and  we  hope  will  receive  the  attention  and  patronage  it  merits. — 
Brooklyn  Evening  Nfar. 

A  valuable  work;  we  have  read  it  with  profit. — JV.  Y.  Mercury. 

We  are  highly  pleased  with  this  work.  For  elementary  instruction  in  families, 
schools,  and  colleges,  it  is  decidedly  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  we  have  seen.  It 
gives  much  valuable  information  in  a  very  small  space,  and  in  style  it  is  generally  free 
from  obstruse  technicalities  It  has  already  received  the  highest  recommendations  from 
a  large  number  of  professional  men  in  different  parts  of  the  country  ;  and  it  must  have, 
we  think,  a  general  circulation.  It  gives  that  kind  of  knowledge  which  should  be  dif- 
fused among  the  mass  of  the  people,  and  it  must  and  will  be  patronised  as  far  as  its 
merits  are  known. — Zion's  Watchman. 

This  is  a  fine  little  book,  containing  the  elements  of  much  useful  learning,  illnstra- 
ted  by  anatomical  plates  of  the  human  figure,  its  orirn MS  and  their  functions.  It  is  a 
highly  useful  work  to  the  student — indeed  to  every  citi/en  it  shows  how  fearfully  and 
wondermlly  we  are  made,  and  what  slight  causes  may  derange  and  utterly  destroy  lh« 
complicated  machine. —  The  Olive  Brand 

A  very  useful  little  work.— JV.  Y.  Atlas. 

As  far  as  we  are  competent  to  determine,  it  may  safely  be  welcomed  as  an  important 
addition  to  the  means  of  elementary  instruction  in  natural  science, —  The  Friend. 

We  recommend  it  as  a  highly  instructive  publication. — JV.  Y.  Times  and  Eve.  Star. 

This  is  a  most  valuable  work,  by  Dr.  Ruschenberger,  and  most  admirably  are  the 
plates,  representing  a'l  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  done.  It  is  cheap,  and  every  pa 
rent  should  place  one  in  the  hands  of  their  children. — JV.  Y.  Herald. 

We  have  examined  this  little  volume  with  much  pleasure,  and  think  it  admirably 
adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  Animal  Mechanism,  as  a  study,  has 
generally  been  neglected,  except  by  the  few,  whose  profession  requires  a  knowledge  of 
it,  and  who  have  time  to  spare  in  acquiring  that  knowledge.  A  prominent  cause  of 
the  neglect  of  this  useful  and  interesting  science  by  the  general  student,  is,  the  want 
of  a  suitable  treatise  upon  the  subject,  those  extant  being  too  voluminous,  technical, 
and  expensive  for  general  use.  The  little  work  before  us  is  happily  calculated  to  sup- 
ply  this  want.  It  will,  we  think,  be  introduced  into  our  schools  and  colleges  as  a  text, 
book,  but  its  circulation  ought  not  to  be  confined  there.  Every  private  library  should 
be  considered  incomplete  without  it. — JV.  Y.  Mechanic. 

It  seems  to  us  to  be  well  suited  for  the  object  for  which  it  is  designed,  and  it  wiB 
doubtless  be  introduced  into  many  of  our  eleiner  vary  schools. —  The  American  Journal 
of  the  Medical  Sciences. 


OPINION    OF    THE    PUBLIC    PRESS. 

"  Such  a  little  treatise  is  just  the  thing  for  our  schools  and  academies  and 
no  time  should  be  lost  in  introducing  it." — New  York  Mirror. 

"  This  is  a  most  excellent  work,  and  we  would  most  respectfully  recom- 
mend it  to  our  common  school  tru  tees,  as  worthy  of  introduction  into  the 
temples  of  learning  under  their  supervision." — New  York  New  Era. 

"The  plan  and  arrangement  of  the  work  are  admirable,  and  eminently 
calculated  to  facilitate  the  progress  of  the  pupil. — We  recommend  it  to 
teachers  and  he;ids  of  families." — Philadelphia  Sat.  Chronicle. 

"  We  know  of  no  books  better  calculated  to  convey  elementary  instruction 
than  these,  and  heart.ly  recommend  those  which  have  appeared." — Brothet 
Jonathan. 

"We  cannot  too  earnestly  recommend  it  to  public  attention." — Cincinnati 
Enquirer. 

"  Decidedly  one  of  the  best  elementary  works  on  the  subject  with  which 
we  have  ever  met." — New  York  Lancet. 

"The  information  it  contains  is  at  once  lucid,  intelligible,  and  satisfactory; 
it  forms  an  excellent  text-book  for  classes  in  schools,  and  cannot  fail  to 
infuse  into  the  young  mind  a  knowledge  and  love  of  Natural  History.  It 
is  concise  ;md  comprehensive,  and  must  if  adopted  iu  seminaries  of  learning 
be  exceedingly  useful  in  inculcating  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  elements  o 
Zoology.  The  plan  is  excellent,  and  must  be  found  eminently  useful."— 
Alexandria  Gazette. 

"  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  of  the  kind  we  have  erer  read. — 
Such  are  the  books  we  like  to  see  disseminated  among  the  people." — Neu> 
Orleans  American. 

"The  reputation  of  the  author  is  a  guarantee  that  the  work  is  a  good  one. 
On  examination  we  find  it  to  be  so.  It  is  an  ad  nirable  compend  of  the 
subjects  of  which  it  treats: — we  should  think,  indeed,  that  it  would  attract 
the  attention  of  teachers,  both  from  its  cheapness,  and  the  admirable  manner 
in  which  it  is  arranged." — Cincinnati  Gazette. 

"  The  Second  Book: — this  number  treats  of  all  animals  that  in  infancy 
feed  on  the  milk  of  their  mothers;  from  the  human  being  down  to  the  mus- 
quito-catching  bat. — Like  the  "  First  Book,"  it  is  divided  into  questions  and 
answers,  and  a  glossary  ;  and  is  illustrated  by  six  plates.  It  is  as  cheap  as 
dirt ;  and  contains  an  abundance  of  useful  information.  There  are  thousands 
of  persons  in  this  country,  and  millions  in  Europe,  who  do  not  know  that 
whales  give  milk." — New  York  Era. 

"We  do  not  know  a  more  useful  set  than  this  promises  to  be: — and  IS." — • 
New  York  Aurora. 

"  We  hesitate  not  to  say  that  it  is  a  valuab'e  work,  and  fully  entitled  to 
the  high  encomiums  bestowed  upon  it;  taken  as  a  whole  the  work  may  be 
justly  regarded  as  invaluable  to  schools." — New  York  Standard. 

"  It  is  a  most  valuable  work,  and  one  which  we  believe  has  no  superior  in 
our  seminaries, — we  know  of  nothing  equal  to  it.  It  is  very  flatteringly 
recommended  by  the  most  distinguished  men  in  France  and  in  the  United 
States,  and  deserves  it." — New  York  Courier  and  Enquirer. 

Ruschenberger's  Second-Book  of  Natural  History. — "This  is  another  01 
those  useful  volumes,  which  Dr.  Ruschenbeiger  is  so  beneficially  in  editing. 
His  former  volume  has  already  been  received  into  some  of  our  public  school, 
nnd  we  hope  both  it  and  the  present  may  find  ihur  way  into  all." — American 
Medical  Intelligencer. 

The  present  work,  is  in  our  opinion  quite  a  desideratum,  and  abounds 
with  information  of  the  most  useful  and,  at  the  same  time,  most  necessary 
character,  every  parent  should  place  it  in  the  hands  of  his  children,  and  no 
public  instructor  should  neglect  to  give  it  a  place  in  his  academy. — Phil* 
delphia  Spirit  of  the  Times.  6 


HTJSCHENB  ER  GEH'S    SEBIES, 


FIRST   BOOKS 

OP 

ATURAL   HISTOR 

FOR  SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES,  AND  FAMILIES, 

1.  ELEMENTS  OP 

NATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY 

2.  ELEMENTS  OF 

MAMMALOGY, 

The   Natural   History   of  Quadrupeds. 

3.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ORNITHOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Birds. 

4.  ELEMENTS  OF 

HERPETOLOGY  AND  ICHTHYOLOGY,! 

The  Natural  History  of  Reptiles  and  Fishes. 

5.  ELEMENTS  OF 

CONCHOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  Shells  and  Mollusca. 

6.  ELEMENTS  OF 

ENTOMOLOGY, 

The  Natural   Hi  story  of  Insects* 

7.  ELEMENTS  OF 

BOTANY, 

The  'Natural    History   of   Plants* 

8.  ELEMENTS  OF 

GEOLOGY, 

The  Natural  History  of  the  Ea.  .h's  Structure. 

The  above  valuable  Series  of  Elementary  School  Books  are  f«r  j 
sale  by  Booksellers  ana  Country  Merchants  generally  throughout  tl  e  ! 
United  States. 


